Economic Development in Africa Report 2017

Printed United Nations, Geneva 1700000 ()–April 2017–3,921 UNCTAD/ALDC/AFRICA/2017 United Nations publication Sales . .17.II..2 ISSN 1990-5114 UN CTA ECONOM IC DEVELOPM ENT IN AFRICA REPORT 2017 UNITED NATIONS Tourism – terms contribution gross domestic product, employment trade – important sector African economies, growth increasingly driven tourists originating continent . , African countries face significant challenges constraints exploiting potential tourism services trade economic development. Economic Development Africa Report 2017: Tourism Transformative Inclusive Growth examines role tourism play Africa’ development process. identifies main barriers unlocking potential tourism Africa structurally transform continent’ economy policy recommendations overcome . sum, tourism engine inclusive growth complement development strategies aimed fostering economic diversification structural transformation policy context. unctad.org/Africa/series “ occasion International Year Sustainable Tourism Development, insightful timely report highlights importance tourism sector Africa, proposes clear policies harness potential build inclusive future Africa people.” Taleb Rifai, Secretary-General, World Tourism Organization “ important report tourism, inclusive growth regional integration essential reading policymakers, academics tourism practitioners concerned job creation future economic social development Africa.” Christian . Rogerson, Professor, School Tourism Hospitality, University Johannesburg, South Africa AT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN REPORT 2017 Tourism Transformative Inclusive Growth ISBN 978-92-1-112910-6 “ millions Africans, tourism lifeline – potential driving transformative inclusive growth harnessed.” Mukhisa Kituyi Secretary-General, UNCTAD AT Economic Development Africa Report 2017 Tourism Transformative Inclusive Growth York Geneva, 2017 Economic Development Africa Report 2017 ii Note designations employed presentation material imply expression opinion part United Nations legal status country, territory, city area, authorities delimitation frontiers boundaries. designation employed presentation material map work imply expression opinion whatsoever part United Nations legal status country, territory, city area authorities, delimitation frontiers boundaries. references dollars ($) United States dollars. Material publication freely quoted reprinted, acknowledgement requested, copy publication quotation reprint UNCTAD secretariat. Regional classifications report Eastern Africa Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Uganda, United Republic Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe Middle Africa Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome Principe Northern Africa Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia Southern Africa Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland Western Africa Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, ôte ’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo UNCTAD/ALDC/AFRICA/2017 United Nations Publication Sales .17.II..2 ISBN 978-92-1-112910-6 eISBN 978-92-1-060368-3 ISSN 1990-5114 Copyright © United Nations, 2017 rights reserved Tourism transformative inclusive growth iii Acknowledgements Economic Development Africa Report 2017: Tourism Transformative Inclusive Growth prepared Junior Roy Davis (team leader), Jane Muthumbi, Claudia Roethlisberger Olivia Shillabeer. work completed supervision Paul Akiwumi, Director, Division Africa, Developed Countries Special Programmes. ad hoc expert group meeting tourism means achieving transformative inclusive growth held Geneva, Switzerland, 19 20 January 2017 conduct peer review report. meeting brought specialists African tourism economic development. people participated meeting contributed report: Dirk Bezemer, Professor, Faculty Economics Business, Global Economics Management, University Groningen; Dale Honeck, Counsellor, Trade Services Investment Division, World Trade Organization; Andrew Mold, Officer--Charge Geoffrey Manyara, Economic Affairs Officer, Subregional Office, Eastern Africa, Economic Commission Africa; Carmen Nibigira, Regional Coordinator, East Africa Tourism Platform; Christian Rogerson, Professor, School Tourism Hospitality, Faculty Management, University Johannesburg; Ester Rubio, Integrated Trade Intelligence Portal Coordinator, World Trade Organization; Zoritsa Urosevic, Representative World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) United Nations Geneva; William Davis, Economic Affairs Officer, Economic Commission Africa; Faiçal Belaid, PhD student international economics, Graduate Institute International Development Studies, Geneva. Members Economic Development Africa Report team attended meeting. staff members part / comments draft: Diana Barrowclough, Hassiba Benamara, Lisa Borgatti, Elissa Braunstein, Milasoa Cherel- Robson, Mussie Delelegn, Samuel Gayi, Martine Julsaint-Kidane, Nicole Moussa, Patrick Nwokedi Osakwe, Amelia Santos-Paulino, Carolina Quintana, Astrit Sulstarova, Antipas Touatam, Rolf Traeger, Giovanni Valensisi, Guillermo Valles, David Woodward, Frida Youssef, Anida Yupari Simonetta Zarrilli. Agnè Collardeau-Angleys statistical assistance; Stefanie West secretarial support; Sophie Combette designed cover; Deniz Barki Lucy éèze-Black edited report; Madasamyraja Rajalingam, collaboration Nadège Hadjémian, responsible layout, graphics desktop publishing. Tourism transformative inclusive growth Table Contents Abbreviations ix Glossary INTRODUCTION Tourism transformative inclusive growth 1 CHAPTER 1 tourism sector Africa: Stylized facts 9 1.1 Definitions 11 1.2 Key characteristics tourism sector Africa 12 1.3 Tourism national development plans 34 1.3.1 Mapping African tourism policy national level 34 CHAPTER 2 Fostering structural transformation tourism 39 2.1 Structural transformation growth tourism 41 2.2 role intersectoral linkages structural transformation 43 2.2.1 Linkages importance 44 2.2.2 addition tourism chain 45 2.2.3 Strengthening intersectoral linkages 56 2.2.4 Developing key tourism market segments 63 2.3 Conclusions 75 CHAPTER 3 Tourism inclusive growth 79 3.1 Vulnerability inclusive growth 81 3.2 Tourism poverty alleviation 82 3.3 Youth tourism 85 3.3.1 Youth employment 85 3.3.2 Enabling youth participate tourism sector 88 3.4 Women, gender tourism 89 3.4.1 Role women gender African tourism policies 89 3.4.2 Female labour participation tourism 89 3.4.3 Gender considerations tourism employment 90 3.4.4 Enriching tourism higher female participation 95 3.5 Conclusions 97 Economic Development Africa Report 2017 vi CHAPTER 4 Increasing intraregional tourism deepening regional integration 99 4.1 Continental tourism 101 4.2 case intraregional tourism 105 4.3 Intraregional tourism: Scope potential 106 4.4 role regional integration promoting intraregional tourism 114 4.4.1 Free movement persons 115 4.4.2 Tourism policy regional pan-African levels 124 4.4.3 Currency convertibility 129 4.4.4 Air transport 136 4.5 Conclusions 141 CHAPTER 5 Tourism, peace development Africa 145 5.1 Tourism driver peace 147 5.2 Measuring peacefulness Africa 148 5.3 Political unrest conflict significantly harm tourism sector 149 5.4 Effects tourism peace Africa 151 5.5 Tourism sustain peace conflict 155 5.6 Negative perceptions continent managed tourism flourish 158 5.7 Policies play role creating virtuous circle peace development tourism 160 CHAPTER 6 Main messages recommendations 163 6.1 Main findings 165 6.2 Main policy recommendations 169 REFERENCES 175 BOXES 1. impact Ebola tourism Africa 31 2. Structural transformation Mauritius 44 3. development infrastructure Rwanda 64 4. Medical tourism Tunisia 73 5. Intraregional tourism ECOWAS 113 6. Data methodology 156 Tourism transformative inclusive growth vii FIGURES 1. Africa: International tourist arrivals, international tourism receipts tourism export revenues, 1995–2014 13 2. Total inbound outbound tourism expenditure, 1995–2014 22 3. Africa: Source markets world region, 1995–2014 27 4. Hotel restaurant employees sex, 2000–2012 28 5. Tourism: Capital investment constant billions dollars share gross domestic product, 1995–2015 29 6. Tourism national development strategies Africa: Elements relating inclusive growth, linkages tourism market segments 36 7. Structural change Africa: Average annual change share added agriculture, hunting forestry total added, 1995–2014 42 8. Structural change growth tourism Africa, 1997–2013 43 9. Tourism chain 47 10. added content final demand hotels restaurants sector, main source industry, selected countries, 1995–2011 51 11. added content final demand hotels restaurants sector, source industry origin, selected countries, 2011 53 12. Evolution selected intersectoral linkages hotels restaurants sector, South Africa Tunisia, 1995 2011 55 13. Africa: Unemployment rates age sex, 1991–2014 86 14. Africa: Youth unemployment rate subregion, 1991–2014 87 15. Africa: Women men vulnerable employment hotels restaurants sector 91 16. Percentage men women account financial institution, 2014 93 17. International tourist arrivals Africa world Africa, 2010–2013 102 18. International tourism receipts compared domestic tourism spending Africa, 1995–2014 104 19. Intraregional tourist arrivals share total international tourist arrivals Africa, 2010–2013 107 20. Intraregional tourist arrivals share tourist arrivals continent, 2010–2013 108 21. Main purposes travel Africa selected countries, 2014 111 22. Average annual growth inbound tourism African countries, 2005–2015 133 23. Africa: Global Peace Index region, 2009 2016 149 24. Africa: Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index, 2015 150 Economic Development Africa Report 2017 viii BOX FIGURES 1. Western Africa: Tourism arrivals expenditure, 1995–2015 31 2. Intraregional tourism ECOWAS, 2012 2013 113 TABLES 1. Africa: International tourist arrivals, 1995–2015 14 2. Africa: International tourism receipts tourism export revenues, 1995–2015 18 3. Africa: Tourism export revenues percentage share total exports total services exports, 1995–2014 20 4. Africa: Direct total contribution tourism gross domestic product,1995–2015 23 5. Total contribution tourism gross domestic product, country category, 2011–2014 24 6. Africa: Direct total contribution employment tourism, 1995–2014 26 7. Volatility tourism inflows external inflows 30 8. Tourism, gross domestic product exports, selected countries, 1995–2014 50 9. Information communications technology financial infrastructure profiles, selected countries, 2015 62 10. Leading countries Africa hosting international meetings, 2015 63 11. Visa openness, number international tourist arrivals Africa Africa share tourism travel percentage gross domestic product, 2010–2015 117 12. Ratification implementation protocols free movement persons regional economic communities 120 13. Tourism regional economic community policy level 126 14. Currency restrictions, 2005–2015 132 15. Impact currency restrictions international tourism receipts 136 16. Instrumental variable (-stage squares) regression findings: Peace beneficiary tourism 154 BOX TABLE 1. Instrumental variable (-stage squares) regression findings: Tourism beneficiary peace 156 Tourism transformative inclusive growth ix Abbreviations AMU Arab Maghreb Union CEN-SAD Community Sahelo-Saharan States COMESA Common Market Eastern Southern Africa EAC East African Community ECCAS Economic Community Central African States ECOWAS Economic Community West African States FDI foreign direct investment GDP gross domestic product IGAD Intergovernmental Authority Development ILO International Labour Organization ISCO-08 International Standard Classification Occupations 2008 LDC developed country LLDC landlocked developing country OECD Organization Economic Cooperation Development SADC Southern African Development Community SIDS small island developing State UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNWTO World Tourism Organization Economic Development Africa Report 2017 Glossary CONTINENTAL AND INTRAREGIONAL TOURISM Continental tourism refers tourism Africa, intraregional tourism refers tourism regional economic communities. continental intraregional tourism subsets international tourism. DIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO EMPLOYMENT Number direct jobs travel tourism. DIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) GDP generated industries deal tourists, including hotels, travel agents, airlines passenger transport services, activities restaurant leisure industries deal tourists. equivalent total internal travel tourism spending country purchases industries (including imports). terms United Nations Tourism Satellite Account methodology, consistent total GDP calculated Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended Methodological Framework 2008. DOMESTIC TOURISM Tourism undertaken resident visitors economic territory country reference, .. residents travelling country. INBOUND TOURISM Tourism (international) undertaken -resident visitors economic territory country reference, .. -residents travelling country. INBOUND TOURISM EXPENDITURE Tourism expenditure -resident visitor economy reference. INTERNATIONAL TOURISM Inbound outbound tourism; activities resident visitor country reference. OUTBOUND TOURISM Tourism (international) undertaken residents visiting economic territory country reference, .. residents travelling country. OUTBOUND TOURISM EXPENDITURE Tourism expenditure resident visitor economy reference, International Recommendations Tourism Statistics 2008, paragraph 4.15(). TOTAL CONTRIBUTION TO EMPLOYMENT Number jobs generated travel tourism sector indirect induced contributions. TOTAL CONTRIBUTION TO GDP GDP generated travel tourism sector indirect induced impacts. TOURISM EXPENDITURE Amount paid acquisition consumption goods services, valuables, give , tourism trips; includes expenditures visitors, expenses paid reimbursed . TOURISM SATELLITE ACCOUNT international standard tourism statistics developed present economic data tourism framework internal external consistency rest statistical system link System National Accounts. Introduct ion Tourism transformative inclusive growth time continent building productive capacities, deepening regional integration pursuing economic diversification, tourism Africa continues grow. harness potential tourism sector contribute inclusive growth, structural transformation achievement Sustainable Development Goals, Africa adopt policies strengthen intersectoral linkages, boost intraregional tourism promote peace. Total contribution tourism real gross domestic product, 2011–2014 (percentage) Mauritius Seychelles Cabo Verde 43.4 26.7 61.5 25 cent 10 24.9 cent 5 9.9 cent 5 cent data Tourism transformative inclusive growth 3 United Nations designated 2017 International Year Sustainable Tourism Development. tourism sector praised capacity stimulate economic growth creation jobs attracting investment fostering entrepreneurship, contributing, properly harnessed, preservation ecosystems biodiversity, protection cultural heritage promotion empowerment local communities. Tourism engine inclusive growth sustainable economic development. 1990s, tourism increasingly contributed Africa’ growth, employment trade. 1995–2014, international tourist arrivals Africa grew average 6 cent year tourism export revenues, 9 cent year. average total contribution tourism gross domestic product (GDP) increased $69 billion 1995–1998 $166 billion 2011–2014, 6.8 cent GDP Africa 8.5 cent GDP. , tourism generated 21 million jobs average 2011–2014, translates 7.1 cent jobs Africa. means period 2011–2014, tourism industry supporting 1 14 jobs. time, tourism operating isolation parts economy, suffering high financial leakage, generating sociocultural tensions environmental damage. History suggests countries rely tourism sole avenue poverty pathway sustainable economic development. Tourism’ potential recognized policymakers national international levels, increasingly reflected national international policy frameworks. global level, Sustainable Development Goals 8, 12 14 highlight central role tourism job creation, local promotion culture economic development. , tourism covers sectors cross-cutting issue, development tourism impact Sustainable Development Goals, poverty, decent work, gender infrastructure development. continental level, African Union’ Agenda 2063 Tourism Action Plan Partnership Africa’ Development recognize tourism’ importance driving Africa’ socioeconomic development structural transformation job creation, catalysing growth productive sectors fostering inclusion participation women youth sector’ activities. Total contribution tourism real gross domestic product, 2011–2014 (percentage) Mauritius Seychelles Cabo Verde 43.4 26.7 61.5 25 cent 10 24.9 cent 5 9.9 cent 5 cent data Economic Development Africa Report 2017 4 regional level, policy frameworks regional economic communities, including 2012 Protocol Tourism Southern African Development Community (SADC), Sustainable Tourism Development Strategy Common Market Eastern Southern Africa (COMESA) Sustainable Tourism Master Plan 2013–2023 Intergovernmental Authority Develpment (IGAD), highlight tourism’ importance supporting socioeconomic development. national level, African countries national development plans outline country’ vision future identify planned policies sectoral priorities, highlight importance tourism. Economic Development Africa Report 2017: Tourism Transformative Inclusive Growth examines role tourism play Africa’ development process. argues tourism engine inclusive growth economic development complement development strategies aimed fostering economic diversification structural transformation policy context. report focus climate change financing aspects greater detail publications sector. focus enhancing role tourism play socioeconomic development, poverty alleviation, trade, fostering regional integration structural transformation. achieve , Africa tackle key impediments developing tourism sector, weak intersectoral linkages. Tourism important contributor economic development reasons. , tourism capacity significantly contribute GDP, employment export earnings. sector offer compelling case prioritization socioeconomic development Africa. Tourism job-rich sector employs comparatively high shares women youth. Globally, women 60 70 cent tourism labour force, workers aged 25 younger. potential foster inclusive growth. addition, rising disposable incomes resources leisure travel, globalization boosts business travel, forecast tourism positive. expected international tourist arrivals Africa continue grow robustly 134 million arrivals 2030 (World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 2016a). , globally international travel takes place traveller’ region , rising African middle class, continental disposable incomes increase, greater scope boosting continental intraregional travel Africa. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 5 Tourism capacity generate spread incomes strong spillover effects poverty reduction stronger linkages. Strong linkages catalyse multiplier effect generate broad-based economic benefits national level, situ employment opportunities poverty reduction local level. African countries, , tourism linkages remain weak underexploited. , added tourism sector captured foreign investors, international tour operators foreign airline companies, limited benefits remain destination country flow poor. , linkages lead , inter alia, jobs vulnerable groups society, poor, women youth. Finally, promotion peace, justice strong institutions prerequisites achieving economic development goals. case goals related development tourism. African countries, , face significant challenges constraints exploiting potential tourism services trade economic development. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 aims identify key barriers impediments unlocking potential tourism Africa transform continent’ economy structurally, policy recommendations barriers impediments addressed. focus challenges: () Strengthening intersectoral linkages () Enhancing capacity tourism foster inclusive growth () Tapping potential intraregional tourism deepening regional integration () Harnessing peace stability tourism. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 examines underlying policy issues tourism sector policy guidance tourism contribute continent’ structural transformation. key questions addressed report include: • tourism contribute structural transformation inclusive growth • linkages tourism productive sectors harnessed create additional economic opportunities provide sustainable livelihoods • economic potential intraregional tourism fostered exploited deeper regional integration • relationship tourism peace Economic Development Africa Report 2017 6 main findings : , tourism promote economic diversification structural transformation Africa, linkages tourism productive sectors playing fundamental role regard. unlock potential intersectoral linkages contribute structural transformation, cross-sectoral issues aligned , integrated , policy frameworks national, regional continental levels. , tourism critical continent’ inclusive growth play important role global fight reduce poverty achieve Sustainable Development Goals. generating economic benefits boosting productive capacities, tourism potential foster inclusion creating employment opportunities vulnerable groups poor, women youth. , continental intraregional tourism Africa increasing offers opportunities economic export diversification potential exploited national regional levels. African countries benefit progress free movement persons, currency convertibility liberalizing air transport services. facilitate greater access tourism destinations boost competitiveness destinations. requires regional economic communities countries comprehensively plan intraregional continental tourism. Fourth, peace essential tourism, development tourism foster peace. African countries tourism potential implement policies strengthen sector policies contribute peace development. analysis findings report confirm bidirectional causal relationship peace tourism show effect peace tourism greater magnitude impact tourism peace. Organization report report comprises chapters, organized . Chapter 1 overview stylized facts tourism sector Africa. presents data size evolution tourism sector, terms contribution GDP, employment trade. considers ambitions governments tourism analysis tourism sector’ role national development plans. Chapter 2 examines relationship tourism structural change, discusses linkages tourism agriculture, infrastructure specific Tourism transformative inclusive growth 7 tourism market segments, ecotourism, cultural tourism medical wellness tourism, strengthened, entrepreneurial point view. chapter focuses intersectoral linkages examines sector’ potential tapped promote local economic development job creation stimulating enterprise development. aims shed light breadth depth intersectoral linkages tourism characterizing related chain precisely. Chapter 3 explores role tourism play promoting inclusive economic growth Africa. discusses meant inclusivity inclusive growth, tourism foster providing opportunities vulnerable groups society, poor, youth women. Chapter 4 discusses scope, potential constraints development intraregional tourism Africa, examining intraregional tourism boosted deepening regional integration areas movement persons, tourism policy, currency convertibility air transport. Chapter 5 explores relationship tourism peace, examines extent tourism contributes peace Africa vice versa. Chapter 6 presents main findings policy recommendations. Chapter 1 tourism sector Africa: Stylized facts chapter outlines stylized facts tourism sector Africa terms revenues jobs sector generates contribution GDP, trade employment. chapter explores tourism earnings stable external flows stability important determinant economic planning. chapter discusses role tourism national development plans ambitions Governments sector. definition classification tourism data economic analysis summarized clarify key tourism concepts report. 1/14 jobs generated tourism industry, average, 2011–2014 = 21 million +6% year 1995–2014 +9% year 1995–2014 ~$47 billion year 2011–2014 7% total export revenues average 2011–2014 ~56 million year 2011–2014 International tourist arrivals Africa Tourism export revenues Africa 46% services export revenues average 2011–2014 Tourism transformative inclusive growth 11 1/14 jobs generated tourism industry, average, 2011–2014 = 21 million +6% year 1995–2014 +9% year 1995–2014 ~$47 billion year 2011–2014 7% total export revenues average 2011–2014 ~56 million year 2011–2014 International tourist arrivals Africa Tourism export revenues Africa 46% services export revenues average 2011–2014 1.1 Definitions Tourism, economic activity composed multiple, interdependent services goods, difficult define. UNWTO, “tourism defined activities persons identified visitors. visitor making visit main destination / usual environment year main purpose [including] holidays, leisure recreation, business, health, education purposes […] scope wider traditional perception tourists, included travelling leisure” (United Nations UNWTO, 2010). Visitors -day visitors overnight visitors. called tourists. comprehensive definition tourism service industry, comprising tangible intangible components. tangible components include transport systems — air, rail, road, water, hospitality services — accommodation, food beverages, tours souvenirs, related services, banking, insurance safety security. intangible components include rest relaxation, culture, escape, adventure experiences. tourism business, industry, service phenomenon depends point view tourism examined defined (Page Connell, 2006; Mitchell Ashley, 2010). , tourism referred invisible export industry tangible product (Page Connell, 2006) multi-product industry encompasses economic activities (Wall Mathieson, 2006). industry turn distinguished generic product production process. Tourism identifiable sector economy system national accounts, official statistics tourism contested (Theobald, 2005; Milne Ateljevic, 2001). studies estimate level sectoral activity adding economic activity hotel, restaurant transportation subsectors. recreation, culture, shopping leisure central tourism experiences, expenditure “-tourist” activities significant results substantial amount expenditure tourists falling International Standard Industrial Classification categories constitute tourism. , tourism’ economy clear, hidden activities transportation telecommunications. definition tourist difficult apply practice, Africa. instance, characteristics trader crosses borders informally similar business tourist, travel place sell Economic Development Africa Report 2017 12 / purchase goods remuneration place visit.1 distinctions subtle implications defining person tourist important. Chapter 4 elaborates issue. report basic forms tourism analysis: • Domestic tourism. Tourism undertaken resident visitors economic territory country reference, .. residents travelling country. • Inbound tourism. Tourism (international) undertaken -resident visitors economic territory country reference, .. -residents travelling country. • Outbound tourism. Tourism (international) undertaken residents visiting economic territory country reference, .. residents travelling country. , report discusses continental intraregional tourism. Continental tourism refers tourism Africa, intraregional tourism refers tourism regional economic communities. continental intraregional tourism subsets international tourism discussed report. noted , UNWTO data series inbound tourism expenditures, total international tourism comprises elements: () inbound tourism expenditures travel country destination () inbound tourism expenditures international passenger transport services. total (.. total inbound tourism expenditures) tourism export revenues refer report. Inbound tourism expenditures travel commonly referred international tourism receipts. 1.2 Key characteristics tourism sector Africa Tourism important sector African economies. sector expanded significantly mid-1990s, number tourist arrivals continent doubling 24  million 1995 1998, 48 million 2005 2008, increasing 56 million 2011 2014 (table 1). terms growth, international tourist arrivals Africa grew average 6 cent year period review, 1995–2014. Figure 1 shows international 1 , Rogerson van der Merwe (2016) refer traders travel rural urban areas southern Africa sell cultural goods informal business tourists. find informal sector business tourism -Saharan Africa substantial scope. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 13 tourist arrivals recorded strong growth 2002 financial crisis 2008/09.2 crisis led setback, arrivals recovered peak 2010, dropped wake Arab Spring.3 , arrivals recovered remain peak 2010. Estimates 2015 suggest arrivals experienced decrease, possibly linked Ebola outbreak4 impact Africa ( box 1). data coverage 2015 limited, ability quantify magnitude decrease constrained. high degree heterogeneity relevance tourism subregions countries Africa. Northern Africa main tourist destination continent period review. received highest number arrivals, 2 global financial economic crisis 2008/09 evident September 2008 failure, merger conservatorship large financial firms Europe North America (Dullien al., 2010). 3 Arab Spring refers wave popular uprisings North Africa Middle East 2010–2011 (Chair Ad Hoc Working Group Conflict Prevention Resolution Africa, 2011). 4 Ebola outbreak West Africa, occurred December 2013 January 2016, declared longer emergency African Union Commission 31 January 2016. Figure 1 Africa: International tourist arrivals, international tourism receipts tourism export revenues, 1995–2014 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 ou sa     eo pl ill io ns     ol la rs Tourism export revenues (left axis) International tourist arrivals ( axis) International tourism receipts (left axis) Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2017. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 14 Table 1 Africa: International tourist arrivals, 1995–2015 (Thousands people) AVERAGE ANNUAL AVERAGE GROWTH RATES 1995– 1998 2005– 2008 2011– 2014 2015 1995– 2014 1995– 1998 2005– 2008 2011– 2014 Total Africa 24 084 47 819 55 931 52 803 6 7 10 3 Algeria .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Angola 32 205 564 592 22 83 16 9 Benin 145 183 226 255 4 3 2 5 Botswana 598 1 684 1 708 .. .. 13 13 .. Burkina Faso 138 268 221 163 4 9 4 -7 Burundi 22 189 190 131 16 -28 9 21 Cabo Verde 41 248 477 520 16 23 13 5 Cameroon 181 328 706 .. .. 37 .. .. Central African Republic 18 18 79 121 12 -33 35 14 Chad 27 53 96 120 8 30 32 17 Comoros 25 21 22 24 -2 6 -21 6 Congo 31 50 298 .. .. -20 21 21 ôte ’Ivoire 250 .. .. .. .. 17 .. .. Democratic Rep. Congo 39 53 181 .. .. 11 -7 .. Djibouti 21 41 60 .. .. 0 19 .. Egypt 3 317 9 949 9 874 9 139 8 4 15 -2 Equatorial Guinea .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Eritrea .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Ethiopia 116 325 643 864 12 5 18 14 Gabon 158 269 .. .. .. 16 .. .. Gambia 75 131 148 135 5 25 11 13 Ghana 316 553 886 897 7 7 18 1 Guinea 17 36 79 35 .. .. -21 -37 Guinea-Bissau .. 13 36 44 .. .. 51 0 Kenya 896 1 423 1 516 1 114 4 -5 -5 -10 Lesotho 129 308 345 .. .. 19 .. .. Liberia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Libya 57 49 .. .. .. -20 -24 .. Madagascar 95 327 225 244 6 18 11 -3 Malawi 203 638 788 805 10 5 19 2 Mali 75 163 151 159 6 19 10 2 Mauritania .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Mauritius 501 847 991 1 152 4 10 8 3 Morocco 2 866 6 922 9 762 10 177 8 7 11 4 Mozambique .. 802 1 891 1 552 .. .. 26 -5 Namibia 462 868 1 151 1 388 6 29 7 9 Niger 53 60 109 135 5 5 5 19 Tourism transformative inclusive growth 15 AVERAGE ANNUAL AVERAGE GROWTH RATES 1995– 1998 2005– 2008 2011– 2014 2015 1995– 2014 1995– 1998 2005– 2008 2011– 2014 Nigeria 707 1 162 600 1 255 .. 1 9 .. Rwanda .. 522 823 987 .. .. .. 10 Sao Tome Principe 6 14 12 .. .. -6 -3 .. Senegal 307 844 989 1 007 8 8 4 1 Seychelles 128 148 216 276 3 2 8 7 Sierra Leone 14 35 59 24 9 -12 -4 -2 Somalia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. South Africa 5 028 8 612 9 153 8 904 4 8 9 5 South Sudan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Sudan 33 363 597 741 22 4 22 8 Swaziland 292 834 919 873 9 -3 -3 3 Togo 68 84 286 273 9 13 -4 1 Tunisia 4 247 6 685 6 815 5 359 3 5 3 7 Uganda 176 623 1 205 1 303 14 6 21 3 United Rep. Tanzania 349 664 1 016 1 104 6 16 9 9 Zambia 283 784 910 932 8 30 8 2 Zimbabwe .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES CEN–SAD 13 628 28 996 32 342 31 117 6 5 9 1 COMESA 7 754 17 003 19 098 18 585 6 5 13 0 EAC 1 443 3 290 4 750 4 639 8 1 10 1 ECCAS 512 813 1 718 964 8 18 9 -9 ECOWAS 2 201 3 778 4 115 4 901 5 7 8 -4 IGAD 1 242 2 774 4 005 4 022 8 -2 8 0 SADC 9 689 16 695 19 497 17 822 5 10 10 6 AMU 7 169 13 656 16 577 15 536 6 6 7 5 REGIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS Eastern Africa 4 365 7 221 10 479 10 488 6 8 12 1 Middle Africa 491 624 1 528 833 7 21 10 -12 Northern Africa 10 519 23 967 27 047 25 416 7 5 10 3 Southern Africa 6 508 12 229 12 762 11 165 5 9 9 8 Western Africa 2 201 3 778 4 115 4 901 5 7 8 -4 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO. Table 1 (contd.) Economic Development Africa Report 2017 16 Southern Eastern Africa. 2011–2014, shares international tourist arrivals reached 47 cent, 22 cent 20 cent subregions, Western Middle Africa accounted 7 cent 4 cent, . distribution reflects fact economies Middle Africa depend mining services play smaller role subregion compared subregions Africa. suggests tourism prominent subregions developed infrastructure. individual countries, table 1 shows , 2011–2014, Egypt (9.9  million), Morocco (9.8 million), South Africa (9.2 million) Tunisia (6.8 million) recorded highest average numbers international tourist arrivals. countries accounted 64 cent international tourist arrivals Africa 2011–2014, highlighting high degree concentration arrivals. Tourism Africa experienced strong growth terms arrivals terms expenditures revenues. Inbound tourism expenditures travel, international tourism receipts, recorded annual average growth rate 9 cent 1995 2014 nominal terms (table 2). noted, , figures initial years period methodology subsequent years strong sudden increase 2002. receipts grew average 6 cent year 1995–1998; growth increased 13 cent year 2005–2008. greater volatility financial crisis, receipts peaked 2012 recorded yearly decline 2 cent year period 2011–2014. samples 2013 2014 smaller, decline interpreted caution. Similar arrivals, decline receipts estimated 2015. total tourism export sector estimated adding international tourism receipts inbound expenditures international passenger transport services. Figure 1 shows tourism export revenues experienced similar pronounced growth trajectory ( recording average yearly growth rate 9 cent). decades, tourism export revenues tripled, increasing $14 billion 1995 1998 $41 billion 2005 2008, rising $47 billion 2011–2014 (table 2). Growth strong 2002 financial crisis, experienced decline peaking 2012. decline considered caution data coverage limited.5 5 instance, data Ethiopia 2013 2014. 2012, contribution Ethiopia continent’ total tourism export revenues, driven international passenger transport services, amounted 4 cent. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 17 regional distribution international tourism receipts tourism export revenues similar arrivals. 2011–2014, Northern Africa received average 43  cent tourism export revenues, Southern Africa (26 cent) Eastern Africa (20 cent). Comparing export revenues arrivals Southern Africa obtains export revenues arrival Northern Africa, indicating important share tourism product offer Southern Africa upmarket Northern Africa. continent, tourism export revenues international tourist arrival increased, average $580 1995–1998 $850 2005–2008, stabilized level ( nominal terms); level remained $850 2011–2014. 1995 2014, Africa experienced strong export growth (11.8 cent year) driven unprecedented commodity boom. tourism export revenues growing strongly (8.9 cent year) total exports (table 2), share total exports decreased period, declining average 9 cent 1995–1998 8 cent 2005–2008, 7 cent 2011–2014 (table 3). share tourism export revenues varies greatly subregions countries. 2011–2014, Eastern Africa tourism export revenues accounted 15 cent total export revenues, Middle Africa, 1 cent. country level, tourism vital dominant export sector, accounting 30 cent total exports, Sao Tome Principe (89 cent), Gambia (43 cent), Comoros (41 cent), Seychelles (36 cent), Ethiopia (30 cent), Mauritius (30  cent) Rwanda (30 cent). focusing services exports , growth tourism export revenues exceeded total services exports growth (8.3 cent year) 1995 2015. sector crucial contributor services exports African countries Southern, Eastern Northern Africa, reaching average contribution services exports subregions 62 cent, 45 cent 45 cent, , 2011–2014. Africa , tourism export revenues accounted 46 cent total services exports 2011–2014, 2005–2008 tourism experienced strong growth, accounted 53 cent. high contribution tourism services exports reflects tourism highly liberalized sector. internationally traded service, inbound tourism major trade category developing countries, main sources foreign exchange income major component exports. money brought country foreign visitors, money local citizens visiting foreign destinations Economic Development Africa Report 2017 18 Ta bl   2 Af ric :   te rn io na   ou ris   ce ip ts     ur   xp   ev en ue , 1 99 5– 20 15 ( illi ol la rs ) IN TE RN AT IO NA TO UR IS EC EI PT TO UR IS XP OR RE VE NU ES Av er ag nu al ve ra ge ro ra te Av er ag nu al ve ra ge ro ra te 19 95 – 19 98 20 05 – 20 08 20 11 – 20 14 20 15 19 95 – 20 14 19 95 – 19 98 20 05 – 20 08 20 11 – 20 14 19 95 – 19 98 20 05 –2 00 8 20 11 – 20 14 20 15 19 95 – 20 14 19 95 – 19 98 20 05 – 20 08 20 11 – 20 14 ta fri ca 11 9 92 35 1 67 41 0 62 33 9 27 9 6 13 -2 13 9 18 40 7 50 47 4 11 37 6 86 9 7 14 -3 Al ge ria 45 23 7 23 4 30 8 12 23 18 8 .. 41 9 31 7 35 7 .. .. -2 6 la 9 16 8 1 04 4 1 16 3 36 -6 59 39 32 18 1 1 05 1 1 17 1 26 7 51 38 ni 71 16 5 17 3 15 4 6 -1 1 36 -4 67 16 8 18 0 16 0 .. .. 33 -7 Bo ts wa na 14 2 55 6 89 5 94 8 12 6 1 4 15 0 56 0 89 8 95 0 12 4 2 4 Bu rk Fa .. 54 11 2 .. .. .. 11 27 .. 61 15 7 .. .. .. 20 20 Bu ru 1 1 3 2 7 -3 6 -4 21 2 2 4 3 5 -2 0 -2 14 Ca bo er de 14 24 7 39 8 35 2 24 27 43 4 40 31 6 45 7 39 6 18 18 35 2 Ca er oo 77 18 5 44 5 .. .. 27 -1 .. 11 5 22 0 46 9 .. .. 11 -8 .. 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Zi ba bw .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18 5 27 4 77 4 88 6 11 1 40 8 gi al ic om iti es EN – AD 7 31 9 20 9 27 21 5 79 15 9 99 8 5 16 -3 8 65 6 24 1 46 25 2 57 17 9 79 8 6 18 -3 OM ES 4 55 5 12 8 84 14 1 08 11 0 47 8 5 16 -7 5 86 3 14 8 27 16 3 39 11 5 80 8 4 18 -1 1 AC 1 12 4 2 33 6 3 96 8 3 70 0 9 9 15 4 1 17 5 2 92 0 4 98 3 3 83 4 10 31 16 2 CC AS 11 6 40 7 1 48 1 1 21 7 18 15 16 17 28 6 41 6 1 43 9 1 22 7 10 1 14 20 CO AS 58 9 2 62 2 3 25 7 1 92 6 12 12 24 0 62 6 2 85 1 3 62 9 2 07 5 12 26 25 -1 GA 72 1 1 60 6 2 97 9 2 12 9 10 21 17 -4 1 20 1 2 52 7 3 94 7 1 17 1 9 12 18 -2 0 AD 4 33 4 12 7 42 16 7 08 15 7 18 10 7 7 2 4 79 4 14 2 55 18 6 30 17 2 89 10 10 7 2 3 18 6 9 11 9 9 42 0 7 71 7 8 5 14 1 3 62 9 11 2 55 11 8 29 9 79 1 9 5 14 0 gi al la ss ifi ca tio ns te rn fri ca 1 92 9 4 98 3 7 34 4 6 44 3 9 9 17 -3 2 61 3 6 39 8 9 59 1 7 12 3 9 13 18 -8 id dl Af ric 11 6 40 6 1 47 9 1 21 5 18 16 16 17 28 4 41 4 1 43 5 1 22 3 10 1 14 20 er Af ric 6 21 8 18 0 40 18 0 37 14 7 02 8 3 16 -3 7 01 0 20 6 97 20 5 14 16 6 57 8 3 17 -4 ou er Af ric 3 12 3 9 11 7 10 9 15 9 61 2 9 9 2 -1 3 38 6 10 3 89 12 2 05 10 5 76 9 8 3 -1 es te rn fri ca 60 7 2 62 2 3 28 8 1 95 5 12 13 24 0 62 6 2 85 1 3 66 5 2 10 6 13 26 25 0 ur ce : NC TA ca lc ul io ns , ed da ta fr om NW TO . ce ip ve nu fig ur es fle ct om al ric es . Economic Development Africa Report 2017 20 Table 3 Africa: Tourism export revenues percentage share total exports total services exports, 1995–2014 (Averages) TOURISM EXPORT REVENUES AS SHARE OF TOTAL EXPORTS TOURISM EXPORT REVENUES AS SHARE OF TOTAL SERVICES EXPORTS 1995–1998 2005–2008 2011–2014 1995–1998 2005–2008 2011–2014 Total Africa 9 8 7 46 53 46 Algeria .. 1 0 .. 15 9 Angola 1 0 2 20 71 93 Benin 11 14 8 46 63 39 Botswana 6 10 11 68 84 73 Burkina Faso .. 9 6 .. 72 35 Burundi 2 2 2 20 4 4 Cabo Verde 44 26 24 50 26 25 Cameroon 5 5 9 26 50 76 Central African Republic 1 5 6 5 18 16 Chad 8 .. .. 45 .. .. Comoros 52 48 41 63 57 53 Congo 1 .. .. 13 .. .. ôte ’Ivoire 2 1 1 19 11 19 Dem. Rep. Congo .. .. .. .. .. .. Djibouti .. .. .. .. .. .. Egypt 27 25 18 38 50 43 Equatorial Guinea 1 .. .. 66 .. .. Eritrea 38 .. .. 64 .. .. Ethiopia 19 31 30 44 60 68 Gabon 3 0 .. 44 9 .. Gambia 68 63 43 83 70 70 Ghana 5 17 7 44 61 42 Guinea 1 0 0 4 2 2 Guinea-Bissau .. .. 5 .. .. 28 Kenya 25 19 18 51 48 40 Lesotho 13 .. .. 55 .. .. Liberia .. .. .. .. .. .. Libya 0 0 .. 28 55 .. Madagascar 14 14 18 41 31 43 Malawi 5 6 3 84 64 35 Mali 5 11 6 31 59 46 Mauritania .. .. 2 .. .. 23 Mauritius 26 35 30 75 74 55 Morocco 18 27 23 68 59 56 Mozambique .. 6 5 .. 39 34 Namibia .. 14 10 .. 89 61 Niger 8 7 3 72 54 38 Tourism transformative inclusive growth 21 TOURISM EXPORT REVENUES AS SHARE OF TOTAL EXPORTS TOURISM EXPORT REVENUES AS SHARE OF TOTAL SERVICES EXPORTS 1995–1998 2005–2008 2011–2014 1995–1998 2005–2008 2011–2014 Nigeria 0 1 1 9 21 25 Rwanda 12 36 30 35 61 67 Sao Tome Principe .. .. 89 .. .. 122 Senegal 12 18 13 41 48 39 Seychelles 55 43 36 78 81 63 Sierra Leone .. .. .. .. .. .. Somalia .. .. .. .. .. .. South Africa 9 13 9 62 69 62 South Sudan .. .. .. .. .. .. Sudan* .. .. .. .. .. .. Swaziland 5 3 1 44 17 8 Togo 3 4 12 16 15 45 Tunisia 23 17 13 72 70 59 Uganda .. 23 24 .. 65 51 United Republic Tanzania 29 28 22 67 65 61 Zambia .. .. .. .. .. .. Zimbabwe 8 11 20 .. 92 199 REGIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS Eastern Africa 16 19 15 45 55 45 Middle Africa 2 1 1 24 15 27 Northern Africa 14 10 9 47 52 45 Southern Africa 9 12 9 58 69 62 Western Africa 2 3 2 22 37 34 REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES CEN-SAD 12 10 8 45 51 44 COMESA 15 12 11 42 50 41 EAC 20 23 21 44 56 48 ECCAS 2 1 1 24 15 27 ECOWAS 2 3 2 22 38 34 IGAD 18 13 13 44 48 33 SADC 9 9 8 53 64 60 UMA 9 7 7 60 55 49 Sources: UNCTAD, 2017 (total export revenues); UNWTO, 2017a (tourism export revenues). Sudan includes South Sudan 2011. Table 3 (contd.) Economic Development Africa Report 2017 22 tourists (outbound tourism), difference inbound tourism expenditure outbound tourism expenditure tourism trade balance rest world. Figure 2 shows Africa’ tourism trade balance rest world remained positive 1995, .. foreign exchange earned lost due tourism. remaining positive, Africa’ tourism trade balance declined peak $19.1 billion 2007 $16.3 billion 2014. countries highest tourism trade balance continent 2011–2014 Morocco ($6.5 billion), Egypt ($5.6 billion) South Africa ($3.6 billion). contribution tourism GDP employment reflects sector’ economic relevance. tourism sector’ total contribution6 continent’ GDP doubled $69 billion 1995 1998, $153 billion 2005 2008, rose $166 billion 2011 2014 (table 4).7 share GDP, tourism contributed 6.8 cent Africa’ GDP 1995–1998, Figure 2 Total inbound outbound tourism expenditure, 1995–2014 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 ill io ns ol la rs Tourism trade balance Inbound total expenditure (tourism export receipts) Outbound total expenditures Source: Based data UNWTO, 2017. 6 glossary definition total direct contribution GDP employment. 7 analysis tourism’ contribution GDP expressed constant prices (2005). Tourism transformative inclusive growth 23 9.6 cent 2005–2008 8.5 cent 2011–2014. direct contribution GDP, tourism accounted 2.9 cent 1995–1998, 4 cent 2005–2008 3.5 cent 2011–2014. noted previously, sector expanding strongly financial crisis, contributing Northern, Eastern Southern Africa. Table 5 shows total contribution tourism GDP average period 2011–2014 individual countries country categories. 18 African countries, share exceeded 10 cent, illustrating importance tourism economies. group includes Africa’ small island developing States, landlocked developing countries, developed countries countries categories, Egypt, Kenya, Morocco, Namibia Tunisia. suggests Table 4 Africa: Direct total contribution tourism gross domestic product, 1995–2015 (Averages) MILLIONS OF DOLLARS, IN REAL PRICES SHARE IN REAL GDP 1995–1998 2005–2008 2011–2014 2015 1995–1998 2005–2008 2011–2014 2015 TOTAL CONTRIBUTION Total Africa 69 191 153 514 166 319 177 988 6.8 9.6 8.5 8.3 Eastern Africa 9 148 19 814 26 791 30 088 8.5 12 10.9 10.7 Middle Africa 2 240 5 050 7 344 8 676 3.3 3.9 4.0 4.2 Northern Africa 33 949 77 503 74 882 75 260 8.6 12.9 11.1 10.6 Southern Africa 12 720 27 129 31 131 33 668 6.4 9.4 9.3 9.6 Western Africa 11 135 24 018 26 171 30 295 4.9 6.0 4.9 5.0 DIRECT CONTRIBUTION Total Africa 29 845 65 035 69 755 73 453 2.9 4.0 3.5 3.4 Eastern Africa 3 858 8 061 10 851 12 235 3.6 4.9 4.5 4.4 Middle Africa 930 2 187 3 161 3 750 1.3 1.7 1.7 1.8 Northern Africa 15 772 35 985 34 696 34 364 4.0 6.0 5.2 4.9 Southern Africa 4 249 8 615 9 821 10 508 2.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 Western Africa 5 036 10 186 11 226 12 596 2.2 2.6 2.1 2.1 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data World Travel Tourism Council.[1] [1] World Travel Tourism Council estimates share travel tourism GDP employment. Council distinguishes travel tourism, tourism report encompasses travel; , refers tourism’ contribution GDP employment. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 24 Table 5 Total contribution tourism gross domestic product, country category, 2011–2014 COUNTRY SHARE OF TOURISM IN REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (AVERAGE 2011–2014) COUNTRY CATEGORY Algeria 6.5 Angola 4.0 LDC Benin 6.0 LDC Botswana 11.3 LLDC Burkina Faso 3.5 LDC LLDC Burundi 5.6 LDC LLDC Cabo Verde 43.4 SIDS Cameroon 6.6 Central African Republic 6.4 LDC LLDC Chad 3.8 LDC LLDC Comoros 11.9 SIDS LDC Democratic Republic Congo 1.7 LDC Congo 4.3 ôte ’Ivoire 5.0 Djibouti .. LDC Egypt 12.5 Equatorial Guinea .. LDC Eritrea .. LDC Ethiopia 10.6 LDC LLDC Gabon 2.4 Gambia 20.5 LDC Ghana 7.7 Guinea 4.5 LDC Guinea-Bissau .. LDC Kenya 10.9 Lesotho 13.2 LDC LLDC Liberia .. LDC Libya 6.6 Madagascar 12.3 LDC Malawi 7.1 LDC LLDC Mali 9.4 LDC LLDC Mauritania .. LDC Mauritius 26.7 SIDS Morocco 18.4 Mozambique 7.2 LDC Namibia 14.7 Niger 3.3 LDC LLDC Nigeria 4.0 Rwanda 8.7 LDC LLDC Tourism transformative inclusive growth 25 COUNTRY SHARE OF TOURISM IN REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (AVERAGE 2011–2014) COUNTRY CATEGORY Sao Tome Principe 15.9 SIDS LDC Senegal 11.4 LDC Seychelles 61.5 SIDS Sierra Leone 5.6 LDC Somalia .. LDC South Africa 9.1 South Sudan .. LDC LLDC Sudan 5.1 LDC Swaziland 4.3 LLDC Togo 8.9 LDC Uganda 8.5 LDC LLDC United Republic Tanzania 11.0 LDC Tunisia 15.1 Zambia 6.3 LDC LLDC Zimbabwe 10.9 LLDC Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data World Travel Tourism Council. Table 5 (contd.) tourism key sector types countries, African small island developing States. fact, tourism-driven countries terms sectors’ contribution GDP small island developing States: Seychelles (62  cent), Cabo Verde (43 cent) Mauritius (27 cent). small economies dependent export services: Cabo Verde, Djibouti, Gambia, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Sao Tome Principe Seychelles (UNCTAD, 2015a). tourism-dependent economies, order, share tourism GDP 4  cent , Democratic Republic Congo, Gabon, Niger, Burkina Faso, Chad, Nigeria Angola. Burkina Faso, economies top 20 African oil-exporting economies. , Angola (17 cent), Democratic Republic Congo (15 cent) Nigeria (14 cent) countries tourism’ contribution GDP grew fastest 2011–2014, Sao Tome Principe (21 cent year) Sudan/South Sudan (16 cent), base. Table 5 countries tourism high contribution GDP tend greater reliance source markets Africa. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 26 Table 6 Africa: Direct total contribution employment tourism, 1995–2014 JOBS IN TOURISM (THOUSANDS) SHARE OF TOTAL EMPLOYMENT (PERCENTAGE) ANNUAL AVERAGE GROWTH OF JOBS IN TOURISM (PERCENTAGE) DIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO EMPLOYMENT IN TOURISM 1995–1998 4 505 2.2 5.2 2005–2008 8 654 3.3 2.5 2011–2014 8 845 2.9 0.3 TOTAL CONTRIBUTION TO EMPLOYMENT IN TOURISM 1995–1998 10 513 5.2 5.7 2005–2008 20 466 7.9 4.4 2011–2014 21 188 7.1 1.0 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data World Travel Tourism Council. tourism-dependent countries 2011–2014 (Seychelles, Cabo Verde, Mauritius, Gambia, Morocco,) sourced 85 cent international arrivals continent. sector’ dependency source markets Africa pronounced Northern Africa subregion, 8 10 international tourists arrive continent. contrast, -Saharan Africa, approximately international tourists arrives continent. suggests proximity Europe crucial tourist market Northern Africa Cabo Verde Gambia, destinations specialize tourist product based beach holidays antiquities. Figure 3 reflects Africa , continental European markets important source markets. Chapter 4 discusses composition international tourist arrivals greater detail, showing continental market intraregional markets increasingly important. Tourism important employer Africa. 1995–1998, tourism supported 4.5 million jobs, supported 8.8 million jobs 2011– 2014 (table 6). Accounting sector’ total contribution employment, tourism supported 21 million jobs 2011–2014, roughly 1 14  jobs Africa, 7.1   cent. Job growth, , slowed period review, 5.2   cent year 1995–1998, 2.5 cent 2005–2008 0.3 cent 2011– 2014 ( terms direct contribution). slowdown Tourism transformative inclusive growth 27 result slower economic growth continent due commodity boom, Arab Spring Ebola health crisis affecting tourism industry Africa. scale involvement women tourism Africa significant, line global trends. Global figures suggest women approximately jobs hotels restaurants sector (UNWTO UN Women, 2011).8 trend replicated Africa 47 cent hotel restaurant employees women. Mali reported highest female participation 172 countries surveyed UNWTO, women accounting 82 cent hotel restaurant employment. exception Northern Africa, hotels restaurants sector important employer women Africa contribute inclusive Figure 3 Africa: Source markets world region, 1995–2014 (Millions international arrivals) ill io ns rr iv al 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Africa Americas East Asiaand Paci� Europe Middle East South Asia Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO. 8 Sex-disaggregated data tourism tourism-related jobs. hotels restaurants sector proxy. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 28 growth ( chapter 3 detailed discussion). Figure 4 shows percentage hotel restaurant jobs held women African countries data year 2000 2012. sector flourish, investments tourism required. Figure  5 shows investment tourism grew strongly year 2000 financial crisis reached average $26 billion 2011–2014 period, 1.8 cent GDP. Tourism capital investment includes capital investment spending industries involved travel tourism. comprises investment spending industries specific tourism assets visitor accommodation, passenger transport equipment, restaurants leisure facilities specific tourism . Figure 4 Hotel restaurant employees sex, 2000–2012a Egypt Algeria Morocco Mauritius Sierra Leone Madagascar Sao Tome Principe Senegal Namibia Burkina Faso Bostwana Uganda United Rep. Tanzania Nigeria Ethiopia Lesotho Mali 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 MenWomen Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO. Data year country. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 29 perception tourism sector reacts strongly economic, political, climatic health crises, financial crisis (2008/09), Arab Spring (2011) Ebola outbreak (box 1). fast rebound tourist arrivals expenditures financial crisis suggests sector resilient. question stable tourism revenues relation external inflows trade flows continent. Tourism revenues stable source external flows foreign direct investment (FDI) remittances. Table 7 shows computed annual growth rates capital flows (official development assistance, remittances FDI net flows) trade flows (revenues commodities manufactures exports), excluding outliers.9 exercise conducted tourism export revenues expenditures international passenger transport. data series cover period 1995–2014 include sample 35 African countries data variables. Figure 5 Tourism: Capital investment constant billions dollars share gross domestic product, 1995–2015 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Bi lli     ol la rs ( st 2 00 5 lla rs ) Pe rc en ta ge Investment share gross domestic product ( axis) Investment ($ billion, constant) (left axis) Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data World Travel Tourism Council. 9 Approximately 5 cent data set considered outlier (.. coefficients variation greater 6.0). Economic Development Africa Report 2017 30 coefficient variation annual series growth rates computed African countries data set. , inclusive measure tourism revenues, tourism export revenues, stable compared export revenues ( manufactures commodities) FDI remittances. capital inflows, official development assistance stable. International passenger transport expenditures coefficient variation. , tourism revenues stable resilient shocks external trade flows. stylized facts tourism show sector important contributor GDP, employment exports Africa, years expansion slowed, 2015 sector experienced decline. , UNWTO World Travel Tourism Council — key global tourism institutions — sector’ outlook Africa promising. UNWTO estimates number tourist arrivals continent grow 134 million 2030 (UNWTO, 2016a).10 expected growth rate 5 cent 2010 2030, sector expected contribute greatly continent’ economic growth. forecast North Africa remain major tourist destination, East Africa, growth arrivals strongest West Central Africa (5.9 cent), East Africa (5.8 cent). World Travel Tourism Council projects travel tourism grow 5.1 cent annually 2016 2026, contributing $121.6 billion 2026 Africa’ GDP, earning $77.6 billion exports supporting 11 million jobs. , properly harnessed, tourism driver economic growth inclusive development. Table 7 Volatility tourism inflows external inflows COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION International passenger transport expenditures -1.63 Tourism export revenues 1.46 Remittances 2.72 Official development assistance -0.05 Foreign direct investment 5.10 Commodity export revenues 5.00 Manufactures export revenues 3.12 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNCTAD UNWTO. 10 UNWTO Africa region include Egypt Libya. countries included UNWTO Middle East region. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 31 Box 1. impact Ebola tourism Africa case economic activities sectors, health concerns crises large fast-acting impacts tourism. 2014 Ebola outbreak Western Africa high cost countries region affected disease terms tourism numbers revenue lost. impact felt entire African continent, tourist arrivals bookings falling countries outbreak South Africa United Republic Tanzania. March 2014, World Health Organization reported authorities Guinea confirmed outbreak Ebola virus disease (United States America, 2016). organization “ severe acute public health emergency modern times” (World Health Organization, 2014), approximately 28,000 reported1 cases Ebola globally 11,000 subsequent deaths outbreak, cases deaths concentrated Guinea, Liberia Sierra Leone (World Health Organization, 2016). main source countries finally declared Ebola-free March 2016 (World Health Organization, 2016). Italy, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Spain, United Kingdom Great Britain Northern Ireland United States America experienced limited local cases outbreak (United States America, 2016). Box figure 1 Western Africa: Tourism arrivals expenditure, 1995–2015 0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500 4 000 4 500 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 ur xp ev en ue ( ill io ns ol la rs ) Ar riv al - es id en ve rn ig ht ito rs ( ou sa ) eo pl ) Inbound tourist arrivals Inbound tourism total expenditure Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNCTAD UNWTO. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 32 Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone surrounding region significant economic consequences outbreak. shown box figure 1, tourism arrivals fell 1  million 2013 2014, tourism expenditure West Africa fallen approximately $1  billion outbreak. threat exposure disease factors led tourists Africa cancel postpone trips affected countries region. international arrivals, domestic tourism limited due restrictions movement districts Sierra Leone central Government (Kongoley, 2015). positively, tourist numbers affected region recovered quickly. echoes impact major health crises tourism, March 2003 outbreak Asia severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) (Siu Wong, 2004). Health crises necessarily lasting impact tourist numbers. , lost tourism revenue remains significant Ebola SARS cases ( figure ). Critically, effects limited countries region significant numbers Ebola cases. Forthcoming tourist arrivals affected Africa, key safari bookings firm reporting 500 operators, bookings 50 cent average September 2014 ( York Times, 2014). Bookings fell countries epidemic centre Botswana, Kenya, South Africa United Republic Tanzania. health risks posed travellers Ebola affected regions real. Lack awareness significant distance travel locations locations Ebola epidemic, , led tourists overestimating threat exposure. International tourists commonly book long-distance trips months advance; tourists ( Africa) lack information understanding quality preparedness African medical infrastructures crises, reasonable assume distant location affected disease time undertaking travel. risk tourists outbreak ( travelling areas cases reported), direct contact infected persons transmission (World Health Organization, 2014). Perceptions Ebola threat played major role decreased tourist numbers. existence alternative “safer” tourist destinations Africa facilitated cancellation travel plans ( Telegraph, 2014). factors led declines tourist arrivals. , real threat exposure combined fear hysteria promoted media coverage -African patients United States United Kingdom frightened tourists . Individual visits postponed, event conference organizers encouraged change locations cancel (BBC News, 2014a), discouraging tourists visiting Africa. Box 1 (contd.) Tourism transformative inclusive growth 33 , access affected countries regions severely limited suspension international regional flights region multiple airlines ( Telegraph, 2014) closure borders region, Guinea Senegal (Bloomberg, 2014). , travel bans put place 40 countries private firms, airlines universities significantly contributed tourism arrivals; bans strongly advised nationals employees -essential travel affected region. Countries declared “medium risk” infection, Ethiopia, Kenya Nigeria, affected travel discouragement bans. - countries, including 15 African countries, limited visas barred entry people arriving Guinea, Liberia Sierra Leone crisis (Cable News Network, 2014). South Africa, , barred entry -citizens arriving countries. Intense screening implemented airports world travellers arriving West Africa, effectiveness debatable. significantly decreased interest travel region. Harvard–London School Hygiene Tropical Medicine Independent Panel, convened 2015 evaluate global response Ebola crisis, cited unwarranted trade travel restrictions major scale outbreak consequences. Implementing travel restrictions strong disincentives reporting suspected outbreaks diseases relevant authorities, beginning outbreak progresses regions, fear negative economic consequences. Closure borders, airline suspensions travel bans complicated treatment efforts evacuating infected personnel harder, limiting number medical staff work sick number people evacuated major infection zones. Efforts protect tourists prevent transmission disease locations return tourists weakened attempts control spread (Harvard–London School Hygiene Tropical Medicine, 2015). impact Ebola tourism affected West African region entire African continent dramatic terms lost tourism revenue, lasting effects sector. actual health threat, fear, access issues travel bans main factors driving decline tourism. Travel bans exacerbated severity outbreak reducing willingness local national stakeholders report cases disease limiting control treatment efforts. important awareness raised individual tourists, businesses Governments actual level risk posed travellers avoid damage economies, livelihoods public health future crises. 1 actual number cases deaths widely believed higher; figures underesti- mates due underreporting suspected cases ( York Times, 2014). Box 1 (contd.) Economic Development Africa Report 2017 34 1.3 Tourism national development plans previous section overview economic importance tourism sector Africa, showing sector expanded strongly period 1995–1998 2005–2008. global financial crisis negative impact sector, tourism recovered quickly reverted growth; sector experienced slight decline. , data suggest tourism Africa important contributor economic growth, continent’ GDP, employment exports. sector’ relevance, , varies significantly countries subregions. section explores status tourism assigned national development plans ambitions Governments boosting sector, highlighting importance assigned tourism developments expected tourism sector. 1.3.1 Mapping African tourism policy national level National development plans outline country’ vision future, identify planned policy sector priorities. Mapping prominence sectors plans gauge role intended sectors efforts drive development improve citizens’ lives, likelihood expansion investment sectors. , -exhaustive mapping exercise conducted review role tourism plans 49 African countries.11 African countries reviewed intend tourism sector grow role future development, plan failed mention tourism. degree tourism expansion advancement planned countries, , varies significantly. mapping exercise served evaluate clarity planning tourism programmes context national development strategies. Based criterion, national development plans fell groups: Group 1. Plans provide objectives tourism sector. • , Vision Burundi 2025 report “ policy development tourism prepared update tourist infrastructures logistics”. Group 2. Plans provide objectives / planned policies aimed achieving objectives. 11 study UNCTAD focused national development plans primarily; poverty reduction strategy papers similar documents reviewed national development plans finalized fully implemented. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 35 • , Guinea-Bissau: National Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (2011–2015) “ main interventions proposed include… investing training youth tourism schools… prepare employment ecotourism sector”. Group 3. Plans provide objectives / policies, detailed implementation plans. • , Medium-term Plan, 2013–2017, Kenya includes details specific programmes development tourism ( Niche Products Programme Premium Parks Initiative) detailed budget action plan. mapping exercise results 49 national development plans African countries accessed show 27 plans group 2, 11 countries fall group 1 group 3.12 sections tourism national development plans vary planning detail, content broadly similar. sections opportunities diversification tourism wider connections tourism inclusive economic development ( shown figure 6). connections inclusive economic development, 40 plans recognize opportunities potential impact tourism job growth. plans refer women youth (ages 15-24) relation tourism sectors. sections tourism discuss main intersectoral linkages: agriculture infrastructure. plans link tourism growth increased market opportunities agricultural sectors, linkage generally considered relevant strong. suggest potential linkage exploited policy level established firmly. 40 plans recognize relationship , highlight paramount importance , infrastructure tourism development. 12 countries : group 1: Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Congo, Eritrea, Gambia, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Mali Nigeria; group 2: Algeria, Benin, - moros, Democratic Republic Congo, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea-Bis- sau, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, South Sudan, Swaziland, Tunisia, Uganda Zambia; group 3: Angola, Botswana, Cabo Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea, Kenya, Somalia, Togo United Republic Tanzania. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 36 terms tourism diversification opportunities, expanding market segments ecotourism cultural tourism recognized intended 43 37 plans, . Medical tourism singled plans, indicating market segment receiving increased attention ( chapter 2 detail). findings demonstrate conclusively exact nature ambitions intentions tourism , addition national development plans, 23 African countries separate tourism strategy documents.13 instance, Ethiopia: Building Progress — Plan Accelerated Sustained Development Poverty (2005/06–2009/10) briefly outlines country’ tourism plans, Sustainable Tourism Master Plan 2015–2025 details. Separate tourism strategies account lack detail sector national development strategies, sector’ weight policymaking budgeting depend included national development plans. tourism planned separate strategy, Figure 6 Tourism national development strategies Africa: Elements relating inclusive growth, intersectoral linkages tourism market segments Job growth Number national plans Agriculture Infrastructure Ecotourism Cultural tourism Medical tourism Promotion women Linkages Inclusive growth Tourism market segment Promotion youth 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNCTAD, 2017, UNWTO. 13 tourism strategy plan defined plan () focused solely development tourism () authored , partnership , relevant African Government. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 37 national priority approved process interministerial coordination, receive portion country’ budget.14 factors gauge ambitions countries tourism sector, availability quality tourism hospitality schools. total 39 African countries school dedicated relevant department universities, indicating ambitions produce workforce qualified contribute successful tourism sector. appears, , quality accessibility training facilities varies significantly efforts needed develop sufficient human capital tourism ( chapter 3). factor countries invest promoting destination. key element availability information destination. 29 African countries official government-run tourism websites, 13 countries lack government- run tourism portals privately owned tourism websites. resources needed public tourism marketing, private sector interest tourism plays important role development. , tourism consideration national development strategies African countries. Fostering tourism skills marketing African countries desirable tourism destinations laid groundwork development tourism. opportunities diversification sector offers links inclusive economic development tourism notably highlighted Africa. topics explored report. 14 Government South Africa main objectives national development plan build “consensus key obstacles… overcome obstacles” create “ basis making choices limited resources” (South African Government News Agency, 2013). CHAPTER 2 Fostering structural transformation tourism Sustainable development requires structural transformation diversified economies inclusive growth. chapter explores growth tourism structural change transformation. process place, tourism offer viable alternatives agriculture, including providing stable higher levels income sufficient numbers. considers tourism foster structural change. role linkages paramount regard, promote creation jobs economic opportunities foster diversification higher activities distribute incomes broadly. part chapter examines linkages tourism, agriculture infrastructure market segments (ecotourism cultural medical tourism) strengthened. +10,000 medical tourists Madagascar, Seychelles Reunion Island received medical treatment Mauritius 2010 Agriculture �shing Infrastructure (.. transport, �nancial services) Furniture construction materials Creative industries Utilities (.. Internet, electricity) Services (health, entertainment) Tourism Linkages essential successful tourism development Key elements tourism competitiveness top 3 destinations - Affordable extensive Internet connectivity - -developed �nancial infrastructure Tourism transformative inclusive growth 41 2.1 Structural transformation growth tourism key indicator development structural transformation, , shifting composition output employment economic sectors activities higher productivity added (UNCTAD, 2014a). Successful lasting structural transformation achieved efficiency- enhancing investments agriculture, people leave sector employment secondary tertiary sectors fall food production levels rise food prices. demand side labour market, sectors absorb labour productively, industry urban services, developed. development, rural–urban migration lead urban poverty, shown studies (International Organization Migration, 2015). Tourism important facilitator structural transformation, growth labour-intensive services connected tourism productive -allocation surplus labour primary sector. shown figure 7, degree structural transformation occurring African countries, measured average annual change percentage points share agricultural added total added ( constant 2005 dollars). countries, indicator negative, indicating structural change. , agricultural shares Equatorial Guinea, Zambia Mauritania declined 1  percentage point average year 1995–2014. spectrum, agricultural shares Sudan, Niger Algeria increased 0.5 percentage point average year. figures terms contribution tourism GDP suggest tourism-driven economies recorded degree structural change period, exception Morocco Tunisia. Explorations relationships indicator structural change tourism export revenues suggest simple relationship , , clear differences development levels. shown figure 8, African countries growth tourism export revenues negatively correlated share agriculture GDP, suggesting tourism growth coincides structural change. Tourism offer market opportunities economies diversify agriculture. tourism entry barriers labour capital requirements, provide alternative livelihood option, rural areas. illustration role tourism promoting structural change, box 2 details transition Mauritius agriculture-based economy oriented manufacturing services. +10,000 medical tourists Madagascar, Seychelles Reunion Island received medical treatment Mauritius 2010 Agriculture �shing Infrastructure (.. transport, �nancial services) Furniture construction materials Creative industries Utilities (.. Internet, electricity) Services (health, entertainment) Tourism Linkages essential successful tourism development Key elements tourism competitiveness top 3 destinations - Affordable extensive Internet connectivity - -developed �nancial infrastructure Economic Development Africa Report 2017 42 Figure 7 Structural change Africa: Average annual change share added agriculture, hunting forestry total added, 1995–2014 (Percentage points) Sudan Niger Algeria Guinea Nigeria Morocco Comoros Benin Sierra Leone Cameroon South Sudan Tunisia Djibouti Congo South Africa Guina-Bissau Libya Gabon Malawi Egypt Seychelles Bostwana Swaziland Mali Kenya Zimbabwe Sao Tome Principe ôte ’Ivoire Gambia Eritrea Mauritius Togo Madagascar Senegal Somalia Lesotho Namibia Cabo Verde Chad Ghana Liberia Burundi Mozambique Burkina Faso United Republic Tanzania Rwanda Uganda Ethiopia Mauritania Zambia Equatorial Guinea -1.2 -1.2 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.80 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNCTADstat. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 43 2.2 role intersectoral linkages structural transformation chapter 1, stylized facts analysis tourism sector focused direct indirect effects tourist expenditures economy. Success Africa tapping potential tourism inclusive growth sustainable development largely contingent ability broadly spread share benefits opportunities sector, minimizing operation tourism isolation. key aspect extent tourism sector integrated national economies intersectoral linkages strong diverse potential generate jobs, foster economic diversification create export opportunities sector. Figure 8 Structural change growth tourism Africa, 1997–2013 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 -0.50 -0.45 -0.40 -0.35 -0.30 -0.25 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 Pe rc en ta ge oi nt Pe rc en ta ge Annual change share added agriculture, hunting, �shing forestry (constant 2005 dollars; left-hand axis) Annual growth tourism expenditures (-year average values; -hand axis) 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNCTADstat. Note: Angola Democratic Republic Congo included due outliers. Central African Republic included due lack data. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 44 section focuses intersectoral linkages examines sector’ potential realized promote local economic development creating stimulating enterprise development. analysis intersectoral linkages, explores constraints opportunities developing viable intersectoral linkages, informed national development plans, countries identified agriculture, development infrastructure market segments, including ecotourism cultural medical tourism, priority areas plans, noted chapter 1. section discusses policy regulatory frameworks, skills development, private sector support programmes improve linkages. 2.2.1 Linkages importance Linkages tourism productive sectors stimulate employment address rising levels unemployment, poverty social exclusion, intractable environmental challenges continent. Tourism labour-intensive sector entry barriers strong absorptive capacity job creation skilled unskilled workers. sector’ projected robust growth stimulate Box 2. Structural transformation Mauritius early 1970s, agriculture mainstay economy Mauritius, sugar sector accounting employment, export earnings quarter GDP. establishment export processing zones 1970s 1980s impetus economic diversification agriculture manufacturing. strong productivity sustained employment manufacturing, 1980s, export processing zones accounted 60 cent gross export earnings Mauritius, employing people agricultural sector, growth rate added 30 cent annually. 1976 2010, primary sector production Mauritius declined 23 6 cent GDP, secondary sector (manufacturing, water, electricity construction) expanded 23 28 cent GDP tertiary sector (tourism financial services) grew 50 70 cent GDP. years, tourism financial services grown importance. mid- 1990s, tourism expanded rapidly, tourist arrivals increasing 437,000 1995 1.15 million 2015 ( http://statistics.unwto.org/news/2016-02-22/compendium-tourism- statistics-2016-edition). addition, share hospitality subsector GDP rose 3.9  cent 1990 7.5 cent 2010. Source: Zafar, 2011. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 45 job creation , higher contribution GDP compared share total employment, 41 45 African countries, job creation linkages tourism sectors result improved livelihoods income growth. Linkages tourism productive sectors market segments potential spur local entrepreneurship business opportunities. developing countries, tourism enterprises comprise businesses key market segments accommodation, transport tour operations, growth local tourism enterprises yield significant economic benefits local communities (Rogerson, 2013). addition stimulating employment business opportunities local suppliers entrepreneurs, linkages generate multiplier effects economic sectors communities tourism-related activities undertaken. Economic opportunities rural areas created tourism sector contribute poverty reduction, including women youth, play role fostering social inclusion promoting rural development, possibly helping stem rural–urban migration. Critically Africa’ diversified economies, linkages tourism productive sectors potential promote economic diversification. Diversification productive sectors activities reduce vulnerabilities economies external market dynamics boosting productivity increasing competitiveness. Strong linkages tourism productive sectors emerging market segments vital promoting diversification, raising level demand creating products services, markets, stimulate job creation business opportunities, generate revenue streams countries, detailed section. 2.2.2 addition tourism chain Tourism agglomeration separate related services. shown figure 9, tourism chain encompasses variety services based country origin, international travel booking, country destination, transportation, accommodation, food beverages, handicrafts, , segmented areas direct indirect economic impacts. part strategies development tourism, African countries , addition putting place incentives attract tourists, aim upgrading global tourism chain providing services, supplying agricultural goods, acting solely destinations, compete foreign suppliers chains. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 46 multiple linkages productive sectors chain, tourism Africa characterized weak intersectoral linkages owing limited productive capacities sectors. Dominance foreign-owned firms, airlines, tour operators, travel agencies hotel chains, importation inputs sector contribute high economic structural leakages, impede development viable linkages tourism destinations. Economic leakages result importation inputs sector large part inability domestic firms destination countries supply goods services sector, repatriation revenues foreign countries foreign-owned businesses, source inputs globally local markets. , Botswana, procurement tourism establishments agricultural inputs intermediary suppliers import estimated 70  cent agricultural produce contributed weak linkages smallholders ( supply agricultural inputs), contributed economic leakages (Hunt al., 2012). Structural leakages result retention substantial share travel, accommodation recreation expenditures tourists foreign airlines, tour operators, travel agencies hotel chains countries origin tourists, contributing limited tourism revenues destination countries. , economic leakages contribute significant losses foreign exchange earnings limited retention economic benefits local communities tourism destinations , result structural leakages, economic benefits accrue local communities tourism-related activities place. Demand tourism sector local goods services productive sectors ensure ’ integration tourism chain. Local procurement inputs generate business opportunities local suppliers, linkages indirectly creating employment generating multiplier effects economic sectors. linkages sectors stimulate markets products services consumed tourists, handicrafts, shopping experiences musical performances, , benefit local communities employment business opportunities generated local enterprises suppliers. Developing strong intersectoral linkages crucial ensuring greater capture tourist expenditures – key determinant facilitating transfer economic benefits sector local communities, incomes derived employment business opportunities contributing improved livelihoods poverty reduction. effort shed greater light breadth depth linkages tourism sectors, specifically characterize related chain, empirical analysis conducted added flows related tourism. data Tourism transformative inclusive growth 47 Figure 9 Tourism chain Customs �ces destination Construction real estate Construction materials Energy Water Waste Education Communications Public security health Support institutions: Ministries (tourism, trade, commerce, transport, culture, interior, environment, .), trade promotion oganizations, chambers commerce, banks, licensing standards institutions, . Infrastructure support Supplies: Indirect econom ic im pacts irect econom ic im pacts Port authorities Ministries transport Immigration agencies Bicycles, boats, buses vehicles Bicycle, boat, vehicles rental Buses trains tramways Hotels Guest houses Apartments Nightclubs Fast-food stalls Kiosks Food-related souvenirs Youth hostels Bars restaurants Handicrafts arts shops Artists, performers, . Ministries national institutions involved management assets Natural assets: Flora fauna, forests, lakes,mountains, rivers, reefs, . Performance arts (music, dance, .) Cultural assets : Archeological sites, local communities, museums, tourist attractions, intangible cultural assets (music, dance, legends, .), festivals, . Shows Tourist guide organizations Independent tourist guides Tourism packages Wellness centres spas Transport guides Information centres Laundries Security bank services Internet cafes Grocery shops retail outlets Taxis Sea river ferries Informal transportation Consumables Maintenance environmental services Marketing, sales ICTs Food factories producers (rural areas) Manufactures cottage industry suppliers Suppliers goods services (food, textiles, wood, environmental services, ICTs, .) Furniture equipment suppliers (environmental residential ef�ciency ICT equipment) Storage distribution Suppliers food drink Suppliers books, CDs, handicrafts, . Signage sites Restoration Management Maintenance Internet sources Travel agents Call centres Airline companies Wellness equipment services Goods services guides Brochure production Trade companies Wholesalers single suppliers Technology shops imports Industrial factories Oil stations Transportation Accommodation Food beverages Creative industries Tourism assets destination Leisure, tours excursions Support services Promotional activities, ICTs, banking, insurance Goods services related promotion Communications, press media origin transit �nal destination() Tour operators wholesalers Travel booking organization origin destination Policies planning Tourism industries Goods services supply chain phases Supplies, utilities (public-private- partnerships) Tourism industries Itinerant food shops Source: Based UNWTO, 2013. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 48 2015 Trade Added database Organization Economic Cooperation Development (OECD) UNWTO,15 origin added final demand tourism sector examined gauging pattern linkages rest economy, domestic international levels. analysis shows potential tourism sector develop linkages agriculture services foster economic diversification promote structural change. database covers African countries — South Africa Tunisia — analysis includes, comparison provide insights breadth depth intersectoral linkages, developing countries Asia — Indonesia Thailand – broadly similar terms GDP capita significance tourism sector export structure relative GDP. comparison, shown table 8, highlights potential opportunities challenges Africa enhancing contribution tourism linkages broader economic development. sectoral classification referred section based Trade Added database differs classification report. section, tourism refers specifically hotels restaurants, corresponds International Standard Industrial Classification Economic Activities, revision 3, item 55.16 Data database regarded estimates official statistics, primarily derivation hinges, statistical point view, main assumptions: • Production assumption, assumes industry, firms goods services produce outputs ( , single production technique) • Proportionality assumption, assumes , product, proportion intermediates industry purchases equal ratio imports total domestic demand product.17 Figure 10 shows sectoral flows added final demand hotels restaurants South Africa Tunisia, comparison Indonesia Thailand.18 15 database, covers 61 economies 34 industries 1995, 2000, 2005 2008– 2011 derived Intercountry Input–Output database OECD ( matches bilateral trade flows national input–output supply tables), insights nature characterization supply chains (OECD UNWTO, 2017; http:// www.oecd.org/sti/ind/tiva/tivasourcesandmethods.htm). 16 http://unstats..org/UNSD/cr/registry/regcst.aspCl=2. 17 Larger firms engaged international trade foreign inputs. Assumptions Trade Added database result downward-biased estimates share foreign added content exports. 18 Output final demand data figures 10, 11 12 millions dollars current prices basic price valuation. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 49 significant expansion tourism sector 2000s, increase final demand, countries, sectoral breakdown added demanded appears broadly similar stable time. , figures underscore dominant weight added content sourced hotels restaurants (accounting roughly final demand), types services (accounting 20 cent). linkages hotels restaurants, agriculture manufacturing quantitatively substantial ( representing average 12 cent total), limited South Africa Tunisia, compared Indonesia Thailand. analysis considers extent tourism-related leakages South Africa Tunisia benefit countries, including neighbouring States. Member countries OECD account foreign added final demand hotels restaurants South Africa, residual group (including, , African countries excluding Tunisia) account foreign added. Similarly, Tunisia, member countries OECD account approximately thirds foreign added final demand hotels restaurants, residual group account foreign added. , neighbouring countries benefit significantly leakages emanating tourism sectors South Africa Tunisia. Figure 11 presents disaggregated data added final demand tourism 2011 ( latest year), distinguishing source industries domestic foreign origin added content, allowing accurate analysis intersectoral linkages related leakages. Consistent general trends discussed , figure 11 shows heterogeneity patterns intersectoral linkages leakages countries. regard hotels restaurants, linkages industry prominent countries, South Africa’ higher dependence foreign sources added apparent, foreign added accounting 45 cent final demand, compared 8 cent Tunisia approximately 10 cent Indonesia Thailand. variability countries, terms contribution source industry domestically compared internationally, figure 11 shows significance linkages services sectors. South Africa Tunisia consistent Thailand, Indonesia, contribution domestic services sector final demand tourism sector appears significantly higher, leakages correspondingly . Economic Development Africa Report 2017 50 regard geographical origin added, South Africa differs markedly countries; average, contribution foreign added accounts roughly final demand hotels restaurants, compared 20 25 cent countries, suggesting South Africa’ tourism sector characterized higher degree leakages, put differently, higher level dependence international supply chains. gap countries Africa countries Asia pronounced regard linkages agriculture manufacturing industries. Indonesia Thailand, contribution added agricultural sector greater, overwhelmingly driven domestic agricultural sector. Conversely, South Africa, lesser extent Tunisia, agricultural added relative total final demand prominent characterized greater leakages, suggesting scope development intersectoral linkages remains largely untapped ( section 2.2.3). Similarly, contribution manufacturing industries ( food beverages, textiles, chemicals wood paper), limited quantitative contributions final demand tourism sector, generally higher linked domestic economy Indonesia Thailand South Africa, exception food industry Tunisia. Table 8 Tourism, gross domestic product exports, selected countries, 1995–2014 COUNTRY 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 International tourism receipts (percentage total exports) Indonesia 9.9 7 5.4 4.6 5.8 South Africa 7.7 9 12.7 9.6 9.6 Thailand 13.2 12.2 9.4 10.5 14.9 Tunisia 23 23.1 19.2 15.7 14.1 Gross domestic product capita (purchasing power parity; constant 2011 dollars) Indonesia 6 022.6 5 805.8 6 838.4 8 465.3 10 031.3 South Africa 9 718.8 9 915.7 11 138.9 12 078.1 12 454.3 Thailand 9 417.1 9 228.2 11 449.1 13 584.2 14 976.0 Tunisia 6 238.4 7 690.2 8 867.4 10 528.2 10 913.1 Exports goods services (percentage gross domestic product) Indonesia 26.3 41 34.1 24.3 23.6 South Africa 22.1 27.2 26.5 28.6 31.2 Thailand 41.5 64.8 68.4 66.2 69.3 Tunisia 44.9 39.6 44.9 50.5 45.6 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based World Bank, 2017. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 51 Figure 10 added content final demand hotels restaurants sector, main source industry, selected countries, 1995–2011 (Millions dollars) South Africa Tunisia Indonesia Thailand 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 Agriculture, hunting, forestry �shing Construction Hotels restaurants services (excluding hotels restaurants) Mining quarrying Total manufactures Electricity, gas water supply 5 000 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 20 000 18 000 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0 0 40 000 35 000 30 000 25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 5000 0 4 500 4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based OECD UNWTO, 2017. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 52 Figure 12 presents nuanced analysis selected intersectoral linkages 1995 2011 South Africa Tunisia, assesses relevance domestic linkages selected source industries, significance source industry final demand tourism sector total added content source industry final demand. regard , larger bubble / shift bubble top- corner reflects expanded opportunities domestic linkages tourism. South Africa, industries considered, growth tourism, reflected increase final demand, potentially created opportunities development intersectoral linkages, shown increase bubble size time. growing opportunities, , materialized extent. regard food products, trade, transport financial intermediation services, higher levels final demand combined growing participation domestic suppliers producers slight increase relative weight industry final demand. implies combination factors favouring expansion intersectoral linkages rest economy South Africa. Conversely, agricultural chemical sectors, share added accounted foreign actors increased, suggesting sectors witnessed move greater leakages time. Tunisia, growth tourism decade created broader scope intersectoral linkages.19 starting higher level domestic contributions, country experienced slight contraction proportion final demand hotels restaurants domestic added, partly offsetting increasing scope intersectoral linkages. sectors considered, evident regard chemicals financial intermediation, witnessed increasing foreign sources added. Based experiences Indonesia Thailand, empirical analysis suggests scope African countries harness intersectoral linkages tourism sector support development viable upstream industries, services sector, agriculture manufacturing segments. degree heterogeneity, intersectoral linkages consideration country- level sector-level contexts. addition, input–output structure chains influences intersectoral linkages, conducive policy framework critical fostering economic diversification promoting local addition, discussed section. 19 observations relate data 2011 ( latest year), broadly valid previous years. effects popular uprisings Tunisia 2010 2011 tourism sector Tunisia influenced figures — notably generalized decline tourism receipts — offer decisive explanation patterns . Tourism transformative inclusive growth 53 Figure 11 added content final demand hotels restaurants sector, source industry origin, selected countries, 2011 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 250 500 750 1 000 1 250 1 500 1 750 2 000 2 250 2 500 South Africa ill io ns ol la rs Pe rc en ta ge 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 250 500 750 1 000 1 250 1 500 1 750 2 000 2 250 2 500 ill io ns ol la rs Pe rc en ta ge Tunisia Ag ric ul tu , tin , fo st ry � sh ity , oc ia pe rs al er vic es al st , nt bu si ne ss ct ivi tie Tr sp ra ge , po st te le ic io ns ho le sa ta il tra de ; ep ai rs El ec tri ci ty , er pl uf ac tu rin ls ew la ss � ed ac ne ry qu ip en ls ew pe ci � El ec tri ca pt ic al eq ui pm en Ba si al fa br ic ed al ro du ct Ch em ic al - al lic er al ro du ct oo , ap er , ap er ro du ct , pr tin pu bl ho Fo od ro du ct , ve ra ge ba cc qu ar ry Tr sp qu ip en Fi na nc ia nt er ed ia tio Ho te ls st au ra nt ns tru ct io Te xt ile , til pr od uc ts , le fo ot ea Ag ric ul tu , tin , fo st ry � sh ity , oc ia pe rs al er vic es al st , nt bu si ne ss ct ivi tie Tr sp ra ge , po st te le ic io ns ho le sa ta il tra de ; ep ai rs El ec tri ci ty , er pl uf ac tu rin ls ew la ss � ed ac ne ry qu ip en ls ew pe ci � El ec tri ca pt ic al eq ui pm en Ba si al fa br ic ed al ro du ct Ch em ic al - al lic er al ro du ct oo , ap er , ap er ro du ct , pr tin pu bl ho Fo od ro du ct , ve ra ge ba cc qu ar ry Tr sp qu ip en Fi na nc ia nt er ed ia tio Ho te ls st au ra nt ns tru ct io Te xt ile , til pr od uc ts , le fo ot ea Foreign Domestic Weight domestic component (percentage) Economic Development Africa Report 2017 54 Figure 11 (contd.) Ag ric ul tu , tin , fo st ry � sh ity , oc ia pe rs al er vic es al st , nt bu si ne ss ct ivi tie Tr sp ra ge , po st te le ic io ns ho le sa ta il tra de ; ep ai rs El ec tri ci ty , er pl uf ac tu rin ls ew la ss � ed ac ne ry qu ip en ls ew pe ci � El ec tri ca pt ic al eq ui pm en Ba si al fa br ic ed al ro du ct Ch em ic al - al lic er al ro du ct oo , ap er , ap er ro du ct , pr tin pu bl ho Fo od ro du ct , ve ra ge ba cc qu ar ry Tr sp qu ip en Fi na nc ia nt er ed ia tio Ho te ls st au ra nt ns tru ct io Te xt ile , til pr od uc ts , le fo ot ea Ag ric ul tu , tin , fo st ry � sh ity , oc ia pe rs al er vic es al st , nt bu si ne ss ct ivi tie Tr sp ra ge , po st te le ic io ns ho le sa ta il tra de ; ep ai rs El ec tri ci ty , er pl uf ac tu rin ls ew la ss � ed ac ne ry qu ip en ls ew pe ci � El ec tri ca pt ic al eq ui pm en Ba si al fa br ic ed al ro du ct Ch em ic al - al lic er al ro du ct oo , ap er , ap er ro du ct , pr tin pu bl ho Fo od ro du ct , ve ra ge ba cc qu ar ry Tr sp qu ip en Fi na nc ia nt er ed ia tio Ho te ls st au ra nt ns tru ct io Te xt ile , til pr od uc ts , le fo ot ea Thailand Indonesia ill io ns ol la rs ill io ns ol la rs 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Pe rc en ta ge 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Pe rc en ta ge 20 000 18 000 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000 8 000 9 000 10 000 Foreign Domestic Weight domestic component (percentage) Source: UNCTAD calculations, based OECD UNWTO, 2017. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 55 Figure 12 Evolution selected intersectoral linkages hotels restaurants sector, South Africa Tunisia, 1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011 19952011 1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1995 1995 2011 2011 20112011 2011 1995 1995 1995 2011 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 South Africa Tunisia ei gh ou rc du st ry � na em ot el st au ra nt Weight domestic added components source industry Weight domestic added components source industry ei gh ou rc du st ry � na em ot el st au ra nt Agriculture, hunting, forestry �shing Food products, beverages tobacco Chemicals -metallic mineral products Wholesale retail trade; repairs Transport storage, post telecommunications Financial intermediation services 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1995 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based OECD UNWTO, 2017. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 56 2.2.3 Strengthening intersectoral linkages Recognizing importance intersectoral linkages contributing sustainable development creating jobs, fostering social inclusion promoting environmental protection, section explores potential developing strong linkages tourism established sectors (agriculture infrastructure), market segments ecotourism cultural medical tourism, promote economic diversification structural transformation. Agriculture fishing Agriculture, mainstay African economies, accounts 14 cent continent’ GDP 60 cent employment. tourism sector consumes wide variety inputs agriculture, including fresh produce, processed agricultural products flowers, food beverages account tourist expenditure (Telfer Wall, 1996), potential develop viable agriculture– tourism linkages raise demand products services, contribute employment creation business opportunities. demand side, procurement tourism establishments local agricultural produce strengthen local agricultural sectors, linkages creating supply employment opportunities. supply side, procurement provide viable market reliable source income local agricultural producers. addition supporting development local linkages, procurement local products critical preventing economic leakages import inputs sourcing inputs intermediary suppliers. , Ethiopia, strong linkages tourism establishments smallholders facilitated level imports due part government restrictions, ensuring local procurement contributing greater capture poor households tourists’ food expenditures, 44 cent hotel spending food accruing poor (Mitchell Coles, 2009). potential develop strong linkages dynamic, high- agricultural subsectors horticulture organic farming, underexploited date tourism sector. women Africa participate largely smallholder agriculture, engaging smallholders tourism chain important vehicle advancing gender empowerment, addition fostering social inclusion. Linkages horticulture growth area women smallholders, dominate subsector, comprising 50 cent paid workforce Kenya, South Africa Zambia (Maertens Swinnen, 2010). Opportunities women smallholders Tourism transformative inclusive growth 57 supply high- horticultural products tourism establishments ensure viable market products reliable higher levels income, integration tourism chain positive spillover effects. Organic farming, rapidly growing agricultural subsector, potential area development strong linkages. demand side, tourism establishments provide market local organic produce competitive edge smallholders. supply side, entry barriers pesticide-free produce enable local organic smallholders earn higher levels income high- products, improving rural livelihoods helping reduce poverty rural communities (UNCTAD, 2006). Demand agricultural products services consumed tourists create strong linkages. Agritourism-related activities farm tours, animal feeding horseback riding, complement traditional agriculture offer opportunities alternative additional employment stimulate business opportunities. primarily commercial agriculture, agritourism increasingly practised smallholders , , Ghana South Africa, vital promoting diversification - high- activities (Eshun Tettey, 2014; Rogerson Rogerson, 2014). addition, linkages tourism high- activities agroprocessing potential stimulate job creation entrepreneurship, transforming rural areas. demand side, procurement tourism establishments locally produced high- processed goods increase business opportunities local agroprocessing enterprises indirectly stimulate employment enterprises, strengthening local industrial development light manufacturing. supply side, agroprocessing enterprises enhance skills development, boost productivity generate multiplier effects areas, demand inputs smallholders infrastructure ( transport storage), resulting broader benefits rural economy (Barrett al., 2001; UNCTAD, 2015b). Fishing plays important role African economies. addition revenues generated exports, fishing, properly harnessed, contribute local economic development, strong linkages tourism small-scale artisanal fishing supporting local job creation business opportunities. Returns small- scale artisanal fishing substantial, incomes earned employment business opportunities contribute improved livelihoods local economic development. , Ethiopia, direct sale fish buyers small-scale fishers high level income retention, fishers retaining 80 cent income annual gross margins averaging $1,000 (Mitchell Coles, 2009). Economic Development Africa Report 2017 58 Diversification activities related fishing raise demand products services generate revenue streams, stimulating job creation development local enterprises. alternative activities ( boat trips, bonefishing line sports fishing tourists, sale fish products tourists tourism establishments) provide small-scale fishers opportunity supplement primary incomes. Similarly, activities snorkelling scuba diving boost marine tourism critical supporting development ocean, blue, economy, small-island developing States. , Mauritius, road map ocean economy identifies country’ strategy harnessing marine tourism, fisheries aquaculture. Positive externalities agriculture–tourism linkages include reduction ecological footprint tourism establishments local sourcing. addition, productive agricultural resources agroprocessing provide basis early stage industrialization, shift informal (-) formal (high-) activities light manufacturing boosting productivity providing impetus structural transformation rural areas (UNCTAD, 2015b). Negative externalities include fact increased demand local agricultural inputs increase cost food products, competition water, land productive resources. regard fishing–tourism linkages, conflict arise due competition usage limited coastal resources important sectors. addition, pollution, degradation coastal marine habitats threats related overfishing pose risks livelihoods small-scale artisanal fishers long-term sustainability fishing. realize potential agriculture–tourism fishing–tourism linkages contribute sustainable development, address constraints hinder development linkages. potential enhanced regional level policy frameworks agriculture tourism. , Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme Tourism Action Plan Partnership Africa’ Development aim promote intersectoral linkages align integrate cross-sectoral issues, order build complementarities sectors. demand side, limited capacity suppliers meet health safety standards tourism establishments, including sanitary phytosanitary standards, supply agricultural produce consistently reliably, preference tourists imported foods, restricts ability supply produce impedes development viable local agriculture–tourism linkages (Hunt . al., 2012; Rogerson, 2011; Torres Momsen, 2004). regard, policy frameworks emphasize local Tourism transformative inclusive growth 59 sourcing requiring tourism establishments obtain inputs local sources vital. , South Africa, National Responsible Tourism Development Guidelines issued 2002 encourage procurement local goods services locally owned enterprises meet quality, quantity consistency standards. private sector play role addressing constraints capacity suppliers provide inputs tourism sector. Tourism establishments facilitate integration enterprises tourism chain raising awareness procurement requirements suppliers, providing advice product safety standards requirements mentoring enterprises viable suppliers. , international hotel chains increasingly providing support local suppliers ensure compliance procurement requirements. subregional level, , part Local Sourcing Partnerships Programme Business Council COMESA, capacity-building workshops undertaken partnership international hotels aim improve knowledge local small medium-sized enterprises food safety requirements tourism, enhance local sourcing procurement. Council entered buyer agreements international hotels, link local suppliers undergone training hotels, increasing local sourcing (COMESA Business Council, 2016). supply side, local producers unable compete imported foods terms quality, making uncompetitive creating disincentives development agriculture–tourism linkages. Private-sector initiatives facilitate linkages buyers suppliers address underlying cross-sectoral constraints mismatch supply demand ensure capacity local suppliers participate tourism chains. regard, associations tourism agricultural sectors facilitate linkages small-scale agricultural producers buyers tourism establishments play important role. , Egypt, Environmental Quality International, private-sector organization, trains smallholders participating Siwa Sustainable Development Initiative organic farming methods certifies produce organic, enabling farmers supply high- produce branded organic accommodation facilities obtain higher prices produce (Hatem, 2008). Costs obtaining organic produce certification required tourism establishments prohibitive smallholders create disincentives producers supply products sector. addition, underdeveloped road networks rural areas Africa impede local agricultural suppliers reaching markets, high transaction costs affecting competitiveness suppliers. -developed transport networks infrastructure ensure access local markets linking smallholder agricultural suppliers buyers tourism sector facilitate Economic Development Africa Report 2017 60 development alternative activities agritourism. addition reliable transport, availability post-harvest handling processing equipment , , ensure proper handling storage fish fishers, guaranteeing quality safety. Infrastructure Infrastructure tourism mutually supportive; infrastructure critical enabler development tourism, tourism stimulate development infrastructure. comparative advantage tourism lies natural resource endowments destinations, sector’ competitiveness largely determined degree natural resources complemented access availability -developed infrastructure destinations. availability quality basic physical infrastructure, including -developed airports, ports road railway networks, access supportive infrastructure sanitation, water electricity supplies telecommunications, facilitate foundational services productive sectors, critical growth competitiveness tourism. addition facilitating travel tourists destinations, -developed transport infrastructure creates multiplier effects areas, generating economic benefits contribute poverty reduction (Mitchell Ashley, 2010). availability adequate water supplies sanitation facilities, hotels, aids accommodating providing comfort tourists destinations, availability Information Communication Technologies (ICTs), telecommunications -developed financial health-care services ensure competitiveness tourism. Underdeveloped inadequate physical supportive infrastructure countries Africa impedes development tourism sector. , shown table 9, -Saharan Africa lags rest world access , affordability ICTs financial infrastructure. addition limited Internet connectivity, high cost Internet services, exceeds global average cost subregions, impedes competitiveness tourism. Countries highest number tourist arrivals, Egypt, Morocco South Africa, affordable Internet rates extensive connectivity, higher numbers fixed broadband users automated teller machines, exceeding average subregion. -developed infrastructure critical economic diversification structural transformation. Infrastructure harnessed support development Tourism transformative inclusive growth 61 linkages contribute greater economic growth. Demand tourism sector transport, energy, telecommunications, manufacturing construction hotels, restaurants facilities support development contribute job creation productive sectors. , demand materials hotel construction inputs hotel operations create business opportunities local suppliers, spurring local entrepreneurship indirectly creating employment enterprises. availability supportive infrastructure decisive factor key determinant tourists’ length stay, -developed telecommunications, ICTs financial health-care services ensure competitiveness tourism promote development linkages create demand tourism-related products linked productive sectors. , meetings, incentives, conventions exhibitions, high-yield sector grown rapidly African countries ( table 10), linked -developed infrastructure. -developed air transport, hotel conference-related infrastructure Alexandria Suez Canal linked growth sector Egypt. Similarly, Morocco regional hub sector, large part due construction hotels Agadir, Casablanca Marrakesh, expansion road networks. Investment meetings, incentives, conventions exhibitions (MICE) sector generate multipliers chain sector (including travel, professional conference organization event management) sectors economy ( hotel construction) yield additional economic benefits terms employment construction conference meeting facilities. , Rwanda, development infrastructure crucial catalysing growth sector, detailed box 3. addition enhancing efficiency tourism enterprises, ICTs critical competitiveness tourism, development linkages creation demand complementary tourism products, enhance productivity workers skills acquisition raising incomes. availability access broadband facilitate business operations, , services, online reservations, -developed technological capabilities reducing operational costs enterprises. addition helping ensure efficiency enterprises increase productivity, access ICTs enhance capacity conduct transactions, online reservations, traditionally dominated foreign entities, technology increasing competitiveness, potentially reducing structural leakages foreign travel agents. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 62 Positive externalities infrastructure linkages include facilitation basic services sectors, increased business efficiency improved quality life local communities. , development tourism, regard hotel resort construction, exert pressure existing infrastructure, provision water energy resources, exceeding local sustainable limits, negative consequences local communities. addition, high costs ICTs limit access broadband services, hampering development enterprises potential access markets provide products. absence competitive markets ICTs, telecommunications financial services countries, adoption policies regulatory frameworks facilitate competition, reduce costs enhance operating environment enterprises required. Investment critical development infrastructure intersectoral linkages. , 2015, investment African Development Bank aviation sector supported, Ghana, construction terminal Kotoka International Airport upgrade Ho, Kumasi, Tamale Wa airports , Kenya, upgrade Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, facilitate efficient handling passengers boost capacity, 20 million passengers year. Tax incentives play role catalysing development infrastructure aimed supporting development tourism. , Gambia Investment Export Promotion Agency tax incentives aimed attracting foreign domestic investment support development meetings, incentives, conventions exhibitions sector, including tax holidays investors tax breaks direct inputs investment related sector. Table 9 Information communications technology financial infrastructure profiles, selected countries, 2015 EGYPT KENYA MOROCCO SOUTH AFRICA SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (EXCLUDING SEYCHELLES) WORLD Internet users 100 people 36.0 46.0 57.0 52.0 22.4 44.0 Fixed broadband subscribers 100 people 4.5 0.3 3.4 5.3 0.54 11.3 Internet affordability month (2013; dollars) 7.0 35.0 12.0 17.0 41.0 21.0 Automated teller machines 100,000 adults 13.8 10.2 26.1 69.3 6.14 40.5 Secure Internet servers 1 million people 5.4 9.1 6.2 130.0 9.8 208.7 Source: World Bank, 2017. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 63 Table 10 Leading countries Africa hosting international meetings, 2015 RANK NUMBER OF MEETINGS South Africa 1 108 Morocco 2 36 Egypt 3 22 Kenya 4 19 Tunisia 5 17 United Republic Tanzania 6 16 Ghana 7 13 Rwanda 7 13 Ethiopia 8 12 Nigeria 9 9 Source: International Congress Convention Association, 2015. Note: International meetings refer corporate (internal, external ) -corporate (governmental / -governmental organizations) meetings organized international associations place regular basis rotate minimum countries. Vocational skills development play role bridging skills gap ensuring availability -trained personnel meet demand tourism sector productive sectors tourism chain. -trained local construction workers, , reduce demand foreign employees hotel road construction, local job creation reducing economic leakages. 2.2.4 Developing key tourism market segments Ecotourism Ecotourism — responsible travel natural areas helps conserve environment improve welfare local people — destinations remote areas. dynamic subsector tourism environmental protection, ecotourism potential contribute sustainable development ensure environmental sustainability. Owing vast diverse natural landscapes, wildlife protected areas continent, African countries competitive advantage ecotourism , properly harnessed, promote economic diversification contribute job creation enterprise development, helping address underdevelopment remote regions intractable environmental challenges. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 64 Forest reserves, , potential role play formation linkages promote local economic development job creation business opportunities (Manwa Manwa, 2014). demand side, tourism establishments forest reserves create employment unskilled workers, drivers, cleaners housekeepers accommodation facilities. supply side, addition increasing incomes local communities, employment opportunities tourism establishments enhance employee skills productivity. Similarly, demand accommodation facilities inputs local suppliers ancillary services, laundry, transport construction ( lodges, camps campsites) locally owned enterprises, support development create business opportunities, local agricultural producers. addition, opportunities supply products services tourism sector ensure sustainable market increase incomes revenues local communities derived tourism-related activities, minimizing economic leakages. Box 3. development infrastructure Rwanda Rwanda’ tourism sector – fastest growing sector economy country’ largest foreign exchange earner – benefited development infrastructure. Kigali International Airport, ranked fastest-growing airport continent, played key role regard. Investment Government Rwanda amounting $50 million expansion airport critical growth Rwand Air, enabling carrier expand 20 destinations continent. upgrade Kamembe International Airport completed 2015 construction Bugesera International Airport 2018, estimated $800 million funded public–private partnership, aimed enhancing Rwanda’ aviation capacity. addition transport infrastructure, significant investment ICTs, telecommunications tourism infrastructure, growing presence international hotel chains, boosting supply hotel rooms, enhanced sector’ competitiveness. development ICTs created demand complementary tourism products linked health, providing impetus establishment Rwanda regional centre excellence electronic health, biomedical engineering health vaccines immunization logistics. Improvements transport supportive infrastructure crucial promoting tourism diversification. -developed transport impetus meetings, incentives, conventions exhibitions sector, Kigali Convention Centre emerging leading destination meetings conferences Africa. Business tourists comprise largest share visitors Rwanda (39 cent 2012), sector increasingly important economy Rwanda, generating $49 million 2013 expected triple $150 million 2017. Sources: Rwanda Development Board, 2017; Rwanda Civil Aviation Authority, 2017. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 65 Joint ventures ecotourism establishments local communities wildlife conservancies effective mechanisms ensuring local communities derive economic benefits tourism resources communities minimizing leakages. , Namibia, conservancies, increased 4 1998 66 2011, generated significant returns local communities fees paid tourism hunting operators, incomes earned employment tourism establishments supply chain opportunities local enterprises. Revenues generated fees paid operators, wages paid operators local conservancy residents -cash benefits conservancies incomes, increased $1.1 million ($75,620) 1998 $50 million ($3.7 million) 2011. 2011, addition revenues generated conservancies, 1,512 full-time jobs 11,223 part-time jobs created, including 696 full-time 1,608 part-time jobs tourism enterprises operating conservancies. Joint ventures ensure transfer economic benefits local communities rents, royalties lease fees. , Namibia, 2011, 32 joint-venture lodges direct income 603 locals employed lodge staff tour guides (38 part-time employees), women, generated revenues conservancies lease fees private investors rents private operators, profits derived lodge operations. activities trophy hunting created employment 155 full-time employees, 118 men 37 women (Namibian Association Community-Based Natural Resource Management Support Organizations, 2013). addition creating demand local products services, ecotourism offers prospects product diversification. growing demand personalized experiential travel, wildlife natural resources harnessed product development targeted market segments, big game trailing wildlife safaris adventure seekers, hiking walking trails leisure business tourists. Rich natural resources African countries leveraged nature-based tourism development niche markets. , continent’ top birdwatching destinations, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Madagascar, Namibia, South Africa United Republic Tanzania, generate employment opportunities tour guiding business opportunities local sightseeing tour operator enterprises. availability diverse tourism products critical prolonging length stay visitors – key determinant ensuring greater capture tourist expenditures local economies. Ecotourism contribute environmental sustainability. Green tourism, refers efficient energy water resources, waste management protection biodiversity, offers opportunities job creation tourism sector, Economic Development Africa Report 2017 66 enterprise development green businesses (United Nations Environment Programme UNWTO, 2012). Redesigning tourism products minimize sector’ negative externalities regard environmental resources ensure sector’ long-term sustainability supporting economic growth social development objectives. , Sao Tome Principe, environmentally friendly practices Bom Bom resort, eco-friendly lights recycling bottles construction, ensure energy efficiency waste reduction, reducing costs offsetting carbon footprint tourism. Positive externalities ecotourism include promotion rural economic development. vast majority ecotourism resources remote rural areas limited productive opportunities, employment business opportunities created ecotourism market segment result substantial benefits local communities. , demand infrastructure, roads, aimed facilitating access ecotourism establishments accommodation facilities tourists, benefit local communities employment local materials construction, improved transport infrastructure. addition, environmentally friendly practices recycled materials, local building materials renewable sources energy, safe disposal waste development hotels environmentally sensitive architectural designs, minimize negative externalities tourism. Finally, revenues generated tourism establishments provide incentive support conservation ecotourism resources, helping ensure environmental sustainability preservation biodiversity. regard negative externalities, activities expansion agriculture grazing areas adjacent protected areas exert pressure environmental ecosystems, encroachment protected areas resulting conflicts humans wildlife creating disincentives local communities conserve resources tourism depends (Manwa Manwa, 2014). challenges arise rising levels demand land establishment accommodation facilities, lodges hotels, high level demand tourism sector water, energy resources, exceed local sustainability limits potentially negative consequences environment local communities. order realize potential ecotourism contribute sustainable development, constraints impede development market segment addressed. demand side, inadequate infrastructure, underdeveloped road networks lack accommodation facilities remote rural regions Africa’ Tourism transformative inclusive growth 67 ecotourism resources constrain development linkages ecotourism. lack policies institutions ensure ecotourism activities carried sustainably, meet local social economic objectives, impede development linkages. Policy frameworks provide incentives aimed promoting conservation enabling communities earn incomes benefits contribute sustainable management environmental resources. , Namibia, community-based natural resource management policy integrates community-based approaches management natural resources (Namibian Association Community-Based Natural Resource Management Support Organizations, 2013). supply side, lack business management skills financing local entrepreneurs hinder capacity start operate businesses tour safaris accommodation facilities. demand labour ecotourism establishments highly seasonal, lack variety skills ( linguistic skills) local communities contribute unemployment. Improving employee skills, business management - entrepreneurial competence contribute skills development support structural transformation. Business management skills, marketing human resources financial management, indispensable entrepreneurs realize potential informal enterprises operate viable profitable enterprises. Similarly, training tourism management aimed formal enterprises, small-scale tour operators accommodation facilities, technical training local suppliers, enhance capacity enterprises operate viable tourism establishments. addition, ensuring individuals variety transferable skills advantage opportunities sectors overcome vulnerability tourism seasonal employment. Policy measures play important role lack incentives aimed encouraging local sourcing, impede development viable linkages. , prerequisite establishing operating game parks forest reserves, establishments required engage local communities tourism-related activities, including employment supply opportunities locally owned enterprises. Similarly, encouraging domestic ownership tourism enterprises crucial strengthening development local linkages. , Zambia, national tourism policy includes measures aimed supporting participation local enterprises tourism. measures ensure local communities benefit tourism, reducing leakages. Finally, costs obtaining certification operate sustainable tourism establishments adhere environmental Economic Development Africa Report 2017 68 social performance standards prohibitive small-scale ecotourism enterprises unable afford certification lacking capacity adhere performance standards. poses challenges development linkages. Governments interested promoting community-based tourism enterprises ecotourism sector offering community education programmes advise locals preserve environment. Cultural tourism Cultural tourism — travel learn history culture destination — demands creative goods services, including cultural products handicrafts, performance arts music, harnessed economic growth. Handicrafts key cultural products consumed tourism industry. Owing entry barriers, handicrafts require level capital investment, potential develop viable linkages tourism local handicrafts sectors create economic opportunities local artisans. demand side, hotels restaurants create business opportunities local artisans supply handicrafts furnish establishments. linkages create business opportunities semi-skilled unskilled artisans informal sector. supply side, demand handicrafts ensure sustainable market locally handicrafts, increase incomes improve livelihoods local communities. Tourism establishments facilitate market opportunities local handicrafts organizing markets premises coordinated visits local markets tourists source handicrafts local artisans. addition supporting development enterprises informal sector guaranteeing market access local enterprises limited economic opportunities, including women artisans, dominate handicrafts segment, access markets ensure integration handicrafts enterprises tourism chain. , engaging local artisans informal enterprises intermediaries greater capture tourist expenditures local artisans encourages utilization local skills materials, tourism generating important source income semi-skilled unskilled workers, contributing preservation local cultural heritages. Governments play role helping create incentive structure enabling environment firms ( hotel guest house operators) actively engage integrating local artisans local tourism chains ensuring benefit economically sector. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 69 small share tourist expenditures handicrafts, studies suggest economic benefits accrue poor comparatively high. , Ethiopia, crafts sector captures largest share tourist expenditures; $7 million (55 cent) $12.7 million tourist expenditures crafts benefits poor households income earned employment business opportunities (Mitchell Ashley, 2009). 2007, Ethiopia, average tourist spent $50 handicrafts, income accrued local artisans (International Trade Centre, 2010). Trade cultural products play important role driving informal business tourism, substantial important dimension tourism regions Southern Africa (Rogerson, 2016). Rich cultural heritages Africa harnessed increase demand diverse products experiences create markets based cultural recreational elements. Events visits leveraged income generation employment business opportunities, cultural tourism contributing economic growth: music festivals Cabo Verde, Mali Senegal; film festivals Burkina Faso Nigeria; visits cultural heritage sites, Kunta Kinteh Island Gambia Cradle Humankind South Africa; visits museums galleries. Cultural events contribute local economies supporting cultural diversity, Sauti za Busara, music festival Zanzibar, United Republic Tanzania, highlights talent continent diaspora populations. Heritage tourism growing market segment significant potential product diversification. Heritage cultural sites, located rural areas, play role promoting local economic development. Africa 90 world heritage sites recognized United Nations Educational, Scientific Cultural Organization, religious pilgrimage sites Ethiopia, Morocco Rwanda. resources leveraged economic growth, paradox heritage tourism tourism highlights part culture preserved future generations, tourism commercial reality economic benefits , properly managed, lead destruction potentially fragile -renewable heritage site. regard demand, heritage tourism stimulate local employment, employment tour guides20 indirectly conservation sites development infrastructure cafes, restaurants facilities, 20 African countries, tour guides men. , 2015, Botswana, 66 guides women; Kenya, Professional Safari Guides Association estimated 300 4,000 guides women; United Republic Tanzania, 10 2,000 guides women. contrast, Rwanda, regard mountain gorilla guides trackers, 11 70 guides women ( Telegraph, 2015). Economic Development Africa Report 2017 70 maintenance infrastructure, upgrades roads. Demand ancillary services, accommodation, visitors heritage sites spur establishment locally owned accommodation enterprises meet overnight guests generate multipliers creating demand inputs food laundry supplies accommodation facilities. contribution heritage tourism local economies significant. , South Africa, tourist visits Cradle Humankind increased 105,308 2006 peak 142,985 2010 declined 127,287 2012; contribution heritage tourism local economy accounted 17.6 cent local GDP 2011 (Rogerson van der Merwe, 2016). Heritage tourism offers opportunities product development targeted market segments. connection visits heritage religious sites, potential develop complementary sites, scenic routes trails, aimed adventure, leisure business tourists, students visiting heritage sites, significant potential creation linkages boosting competitiveness local tour operators businesses providing services tourists, ensuring young people local communities benefit employment revenues. Economic opportunities arising heritage tourism potential transform underdeveloped regions related sites located, provide impetus regions strive overcome economic stagnation decline (Rogerson van der Merwe, 2016). summary, order realize potential cultural tourism contribute development Africa, constraints overcome. regard demand, inadequate infrastructure hinders development heritage tourism. world heritage sites located remote areas, lack investment sites underdeveloped road networks hinder access contribute underutilization sites. , world heritage sites threat human activities climate change-related effects, sites carefully managed ensure long-term sustainability. Lack ancillary services accommodation facilities house visitors limit tourist visits day trips, shorter stays limit opportunities capture tourist expenditures. Owing inadequate development cultural tourism products, cultural attractions activities remain unknown domestic international visitors, hampering development viable tourism products rendering sites economically unproductive. Weak partnerships inadequate mechanisms facilitate links performers artisans tourism establishments impede Tourism transformative inclusive growth 71 integration tourism chain. addition, development linkages hindered limited customer service managerial capacity, lack skilled managers creative industry professionals promote local musical cultural events lack business management skills local artisans. Business networks business linkages programmes amplify strengthen intersectoral linkages facilitating knowledge exchanges, creating resource links providing information tourism demand products services. , Tourism Enterprise Programme South Africa dedicated support initiative helps ensure tourism enterprises meet buyer requirements facilitates commercially viable business transactions tourism enterprises entities, helping ensure integration enterprises tourism chains (Rogerson, 2013). levels quality variety products imported handicrafts imitations constrain development linkages tourism handicrafts sector. , South Africa, Cape Craft Design Institute facilitates market access informal handicrafts enterprises, including tourism sector. Medical tourism private medical sector Africa diverse, lack regulatory accreditation frameworks, lead lack consistency quality. Private medical service providers, insurers manufacturers play important role, accounting 50 cent provision health-care services Africa (International Finance Corporation, 2008). Medical tourism — cross-border travel medical purposes, including medical services elective procedures — emerging market segment expanded years African countries, notably Egypt, Kenya, Mauritius, Morocco, South Africa Tunisia. Africa, North–South dimension medical tourism characterized tourists Europe seeking -cost, high-quality specialized medical services cosmetic reconstructive surgery Mauritius, Morocco, South Africa Tunisia (Connell, 2006). South–South dimension marked African nationals seeking high- specialized medical services primary health-care services India , increasingly, African countries. Estimates suggest intraregional medical tourism market segment Africa growing. Mauritius, , 10,000 inbound medical tourists, Madagascar (28     cent), Seychelles (15 cent) Reunion Island (14 cent), received medical treatment 2010 (Mauritius Board Investment, 2017). 2003–2008, estimated 2.5 million inbound medical tourists received treatment South Africa (Crush Economic Development Africa Report 2017 72 al, 2012). detailed box 4, Tunisia receives large share continent’ inbound medical tourists. Demand medical tourists specialized medical care stimulate job creation highly skilled health professionals provide services. , Mauritius, availability highly skilled medical personnel providing specialized treatment, cardiology, dentistry, ophthalmology cosmetic reconstructive surgery, critical development medical tourism. regard supply, market segment important driver business development, demand medical tourism providing impetus medical travel facilitation enterprises link medical tourists medical services. , demand accommodation transport services medical tourists foster integration health-care services tourism sector, horizontal linkages contributing economic benefits medical sector. potential development health insurance products cover expenses medical services destination countries. intraregional nature medical tourism continent, related potential develop regional insurance products create business opportunities aimed meeting demand regional medical services (International Finance Corporation, 2008). Examples regional health plans include joint Bupa International–Jubilee Insurance plans Explorer Health private individuals Business Explorer Health corporate clients Aetna plan Africa Ultra Care private individuals corporate clients Africa seeking treatment Africa India, Pakistan Sri Lanka. Wellness tourism — travel pursuit enhancing physical - — growing market segment Africa linked growing demand thalassotherapy, homeopathic treatments traditional therapies international domestic tourists. -Saharan Africa fastest growing markets wellness tourism, significant growth number wellness tourists spa revenues (Global Wellness Institute, 2014). Egypt, Mauritius, Morocco, South Africa Tunisia developed niche markets wellness tourism, market segment increasingly emerging continent, including Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya Nigeria. Positive externalities medical tourism include potential generate significant revenues Governments foreign exchange earned fees derived provision visas. Medical tourism patient choice, privacy confidentiality, result higher levels personal care. instances, medical tourism prompt brain gain (UNCTAD, 2012). , promising Tourism transformative inclusive growth 73 opportunities enticed highly skilled medical professionals diaspora India, trend bridging critical skills gap strengthening India’ health-care system. Medical tourism provide impetus development investment health-care infrastructure. , Mauritius , , Ghana Nigeria, benefited development hospital infrastructure Apollo Hospitals Group, India. services public sector plays dominant role, private sector ameliorate resource limitations frequently constrain capacity. , Ghana, shortage nurses, public nursing schools resources accept 50 cent qualified applicants. Box 4. Medical tourism Tunisia Tunisia robust medical tourism market major exporter health-care services. years, inbound medical tourists increased significantly, estimated 42,000 2003 150,000 2010, making Tunisia leading medical tourism destination continent. time, contribution market segment increased substantially. Direct health-care services exports, excluding revenues generated private clinics public establishments, increased $22 million 2003 $82 million 2010. Health care accounted 6.2 cent GDP 2010, 54 cent share allocated public sector 46 cent private sector. private-sector spending amounted $1.2 billion. Tunisia’ competitiveness health-care costs key driver North–South trade health-care services European countries, primarily middle-market segments lack sufficient resources seek treatment countries. Demand plastic surgery dental treatment, services limited insurance coverage, fuelled North–South trade. South–South trade health-care services primarily neighbouring countries. 2003, 81 cent Tunisia’ inbound medical tourists Libya, 3 cent Algeria. Health-care services exports generated 10,480 jobs 2003, including 5,430 tourism sector 5,050 health sector. 2010, health-care services exports generated 37,000 jobs, including 20,000 subsistence accommodation services, 10,000  medical jobs approximately 8,000 hospital support staff jobs. Government Tunisia helped catalyse medical tourism sector. 2009, Government launched strategy aimed transforming country regional medical hub 2016, including providing incentives abolition added tax medical treatment -Tunisian residents, tax exoneration medical equipment devices 50 cent tax reduction investments related medical institutions infrastructure. , part Tunisia 2020: Road Inclusion, Sustainability Efficiency Plan, Government prioritized development wellness tourism, key objectives include direct job creation thalassotherapy creation indirect jobs. Sources: Lautier, 2008; Lautier, 2013. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 74 tuition fees 50 cent higher government institutions, demand places private institutions robust address shortages (International Finance Corporation, 2008). Similarly, South Africa, restrictions private sector involvement doctor training, limited private–public partnerships initiated order respond shortage doctors, meet rising levels student demand (Econex, 2015). Negative externalities medical tourism include development - tiered health-care system destination countries, characterized -funded private sector -resourced public sector. development -resourced private sector prompt internal brain drain, health-care professionals migrate public health institutions lucrative opportunities private sector, possibly contributing shortages health-care workforce public sector. , South Africa, shifts compound challenges outmigration health-care professionals. underresourced health-care systems, investment private sector occur expense public system, potentially straining capacities weak health-care systems, developments possibly exacerbating social inequalities. , reinvestment medical tourism revenues public health- care systems offset negative externalities growth parallel private health-care systems. , Kenya, Health Tourism Strategy 2014– 2018 recognizes boosting inbound medical tourism -Saharan Africa , increasing health-care services exports provision high- quality health-care services infrastructure, improve health-care sector play critical role stemming outbound medical tourism losses revenues health-care services imports. capitalize potential medical tourism contribute sustainable development, constraints impede development addressed. inadequately trained workforce incapable providing highly specialized medical services hinder development medical tourism. , Tunisia, inadequate skills hospital administration identified constraint development medical tourism. Advanced, highly specialized skills strong academic institutions crucial developing competitive high-skill services (UNCTAD, 2004). includes -trained, highly skilled physicians health-care professionals enhance competitiveness medical tourism market segment. Underdeveloped health-care services infrastructure, including ICTs, transport financial services, impede development medical tourism. Health-care system quality barrier entry medical tourism market segment. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 75 prerequisite exporting health-care services, health-care systems require minimum level quality, capacity treat vulnerable segments population key indicator regard (Lautier, 2013). Prerequisites development market segment security, stability availability infrastructure, including efficient transport networks -developed air transport accommodation facilities. , Mauritius, ICTs, transport, financial services telecommunications infrastructure critical development medical tourism. Investment infrastructure critical supporting development market segment. countries increasingly tax incentives attract investment catalyse development medical tourism. , measures support development health- care complex Marrakesh, Morocco, offers specialized medical procedures, including cardiology radiology, annual 5,000-patient capacity. constraints development medical tourism weak regulatory frameworks safeguard patient safety ensure quality care, lack legal frameworks (malpractice laws) aimed protecting consumers event professional errors lack national international accreditation bodies ensure compliance institutions international standards. Countries increasingly steps develop regulatory frameworks. , Kenya, Health Tourism Strategy 2014–2018 identifies critical development market segment: establishment national accreditation system medical tourism consistent international standards enhancement governance health sector. 2.3 Conclusions chapter shows tourism provide economic opportunities promote economic diversification foster structural change. Africa, tourism promote diversification productive sectors activities provide sustainable livelihoods, fostering structural change. Tourism important driver economic, social, cultural development Africa, remote rural areas support economic development strong intersectoral linkages. Developing strong linkages tourism agriculture infrastructure, developing market segments ecotourism cultural medical tourism create economic opportunities generate revenue streams. , strong intersectoral linkages ensure integration local suppliers, producers enterprises tourism chain, economic opportunities created Economic Development Africa Report 2017 76 broadly spreading benefits ensuring local communities reap benefits incomes earned. order harness potential, governments actions. Integrate policies local sourcing strategies comply international standards potential intersectoral linkages, governments support development strong linkages implementing policies encourage local sourcing, forging partnerships private sector address underlying constraints local suppliers. , critical ensure institutional capacity-building systems place farmers fishers attain sanitary phytosanitary standards organic produce certification requirements demanded tourism establishments. helps enable local suppliers tap higher supply chains tourism, dominated foreign suppliers. Support development infrastructure -developed infrastructure vital, infrastructure integral enabler development tourism, facilitates basic services productive sectors critical growth competitiveness tourism. Capital investment tourism rising. essential local communities benefit infrastructure investments, improved access water, sanitation, electricity, roads ICT-related services. Policies required ensure equitable access infrastructure services mutually benefit tourism sector local communities. Governments stimulate development infrastructure providing sound regulatory environment. addition, governments provide tax incentives, grants preferential loans, , aimed catalysing investment development viable, emerging market segments tourism. Public–private partnerships important financing mechanism , properly harnessed, contribute development infrastructure Africa, partnerships increasingly Africa (UNCTAD, 2016a). Encourage joint ventures Support long term local private sector operate hotels compete international hotel chains present countries. Joint ventures encouraged local firms international hotel operators, order ownership management hotels involve mix local foreign capital. Local tour operators provide online booking services, enable tourists purchase Tourism transformative inclusive growth 77 tickets destination packages local suppliers international tour operators, generating greater local content tourism chain. Finally, development contractual arrangements smallholders exploit economies scale agglomeration ( formation producer cooperatives) provision finance, training inputs (UNCTAD, 2015c), tourism play important role linking farmers markets higher supply chains. Boost services exports tourism sector offers promising avenue boosting services exports African countries part economic diversification strategies. Tourism export revenues grew strongly 1995–2014. sector main contributor Africa’ services exports, generates export revenues, demand economies services ICTs energy critical growth. Tourism dynamic sector; medical tourism, , rising market segment African countries. countries capacity provide medical care vulnerable population segments, export health-care services viable alternative option generating additional revenues governments. properly harnessed, complement public health sector helping provide -needed medical infrastructure, skills technology. African policymakers tourism central element economic development strategies. Policies foster development tourism generate broad set economy-wide benefits. addition generating economic opportunities boosting growth local communities, intersectoral linkages tourism potential foster social inclusion reduce poverty social inequalities socially disadvantaged groups. Devising strategies foster inclusion tourism women, youth poor critical, detailed chapter 3. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 79 CHAPTER 3 Tourism inclusive growth role tourism play inclusive growth focus chapter. chapter outlines meant inclusivity inclusive growth discusses tourism foster inclusive growth providing opportunities vulnerable groups, poor, youth women. 30.5% Women 20.8% Women Female employers Africa Tourism sector sectors 60–70% Women global tourism labour force 50% Workers global tourism industry aged 25 younger =+ Tourism - Vulnerable employment Tourism transformative inclusive growth 81 3.1 Vulnerability inclusive growth Achieving inclusive growth objective development strategies. Inclusive growth “ opportunities participate growth process making benefits shared” (United Nations Development Programme, 2017). implies vulnerability populations decrease countries grow, vulnerability major obstacle inclusive development (UNCTAD, 2014b). Reducing vulnerability embodied overarching goal 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development aims leave . Vulnerable people automatically benefit economic growth. steady unprecedented economic growth Africa 15 years, poverty, unemployment inequality remain high continent, disproportionately affecting women youth (African Development Bank, 2014). significant reason exclusion growth phenomenon jobless growth, driven lack structural transformation (UNCTAD, 2014c). population groups vulnerable exclusion . pronounced form vulnerability poverty, poor fewest buffers resources cope hazards shocks. Youth group comparatively vulnerable youth affected unemployment underemployment resource constrained. vulnerability women high, disproportionately represented poor; unemployed underemployed; work informal sector -employed, access social protection; voice representation social dialogue; continue face constraints limit access labour market productive assets; disproportionately affected crisis (UNCTAD, 2014d). vulnerable population groups, minorities people disabilities. chapter examines tourism foster inclusive growth decent employment opportunities job creation poor, youth women. groups constitute large shares population, tackling vulnerability major contributions inclusiveness. groups special consideration national development plans focusing tourism ( chapter ). sector’ capacity employment creation, including poor, recognized African national development plans prioritize tourism. national development plans tourism capable offering opportunities youth women. Finally, groups feature prominently literature tourism developing countries. 30.5% Women 20.8% Women Female employers Africa Tourism sector sectors 60–70% Women global tourism labour force 50% Workers global tourism industry aged 25 younger =+ Tourism - Vulnerable employment Economic Development Africa Report 2017 82 3.2 Tourism poverty alleviation Previous chapters shown tourism sector Africa contributes significantly GDP employment. arguments support notion sector support pro-poor growth – , growth “ enhances ability poor men women participate , contribute benefit growth” (Organization Economic Cooperation Development, 2006). Specifically, range tourism economic activities provide high share revenues poor (UNCTAD, 2013a). ways tourism achieves , improved, examined section. , tourism sector labour intensive. Compared sectors, tourism generates comparatively jobs sectors, agriculture (Overseas Development Institute, 2006). due capacity create strong linkages, discussed chapter 2. International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates 1 job created core areas hotels, catering tourism, approximately 1.5 additional jobs created sectors indirectly linked tourism (ILO, 2010a); tourism world’ top creators jobs (ILO UNWTO, 2009). Tourism jobs require skill levels, high proportion -skilled positions (World Travel Tourism Council, 2015). relevant poor excluded work due lack sufficient employment experience education. pro-poor impact dependent wage level employment opportunities (UNCTAD, 2013a). , “--pocket expenditure” tourism reach poor. Studies suggest 25–50 cent spending restaurants, shopping handicrafts, local transport excursions reaches poor, supplies pursuits sourced locally (Overseas Development Institute, 2006).21 leakages adequately minimized ( chapter 2) local people integrated tourism chain, tourism opportunities poor people small businesses sell goods services tourists. Tourism provide access income-generating opportunities, opportunities constitute vulnerable employment ( ). 21 --pocket expenditure share total tourist expenditure, figure ap- pears vary Africa. --pocket tourist expenditure items food, shopping excursions constitutes tourism chain Gambia, figure markets Ethiopia, Mozambique Uganda discretionary prod- ucts . level --pocket expenditure varies tourists, package tourists spending pocket -package tourists (Mitchell Faal, 2008). Tourism transformative inclusive growth 83 22 Traditional knowledge “knowledge, -, skills practices developed, sus- tained passed generation generation community, forming part cultural spiritual identity” (World Intellectual Property Organization, 2017). , agriculture strongest linkage tourism owing demand food agricultural products generated tourists. Agriculture labour intensive sector mainstay rural areas poverty pervasive deepest; , 70 cent poor Africa live rural areas rely agriculture food livelihood (International Fund Agricultural Development, 2011). Agricultural income reported sustain households jobs hotels restaurants (UNCTAD, 2013a), local agricultural products effectively integrated tourism chain. Increasing demand agricultural products increased tourism provide additional income opportunities poorer people, rural areas. Fourth, tourism place great warm climates, environments cultural products history rural areas comparative advantage cities attracting tourists (UNWTO, 2010). international tourists; domestic continental African tourists interested opportunities shopping tourism, international tourists travel Africa holiday purposes interested experiencing cultures, activities environments ( chapter 4). tourism brings market rural areas communities, offers opportunities communities traditionally disconnected economic opportunities cities create. Tourism , , pose risk natural cultural resources local communities. imperative development tourism include local communities early stage, identified United Nations Educational, Scientific Cultural Organization “Tourism, culture development West Africa” Programme (United Nations Educational, Scientific Cultural Organization, 2004). Finally, investment requirements tourism-related activities . instance, production handicrafts requires traditional knowledge22 local materials comparatively finance infrastructure. Similarly, tourism sector demand traditional music tours local areas, depend traditional knowledge skills. Acquiring local traditional skills investment intensive conducive providing opportunities poor. tourism jobs poverty reduction appreciated case Cabo Verde. Tourism Cabo Verde experienced strong growth 15 years, tourism export revenues increasing $64 million 2000 $450 million 2014. sector’ contribution GDP exceeded 43 cent Economic Development Africa Report 2017 84 average 2011–2015. income generated booming tourism sector led notable decrease poverty rates enabled country graduate 2007 developed countries category. 2001/02 survey, Cabo Verde poverty rate 37 cent, fell 27 cent 2007 (Overseas Development Institute, 2012). Poverty rates lowest islands country’ main tourist destinations. Tourism offers high share -skilled jobs provide access population groups levels education, benefits risks. -skilled work runs risk decent work.23 study, , argues employment tourism -skilled employment characterized temporary casual, high staff turnover, long difficult working hours locations typical residential areas (Ferguson, 2009). , harassment, stress, wages exploitation concern (Baum, 2013). , categorization tourism jobs “-skilled” representative developed developing countries. , frontline staff receptionist positions require skills information technology foreign languages, small tourism operators traders require accounting stock-management skills. skills abundant developed developing countries, making valued developing countries. , developing countries, high staff turnover tourism sector necessarily reflect negative aspect labour market. Skills gained tourism employees transferable contribute regular job exploit wage differences seasonal tourist movements (MacCarthy, 2014). concern relating tourism work constitutes vulnerable employment. Vulnerable employment defined ILO sum -account workers (-employed individuals employees) contributing family workers (individuals working establishment operated related person household). positions, workers formal working arrangements; positions lack key elements decent work (ILO, 2010b). , tourism alleviate concern, ILO finds countries tourism sector dominant, vulnerable employment rate . Tourism wage salaried positions, assist vulnerable workers Africa (ILO, 2012a). 23 Decent work requires dignity, equality, fair income safe working conditions workers (ILO, 2015), reflected Sustainable Development Goal 8. distinct vulnerable work indicator, focuses specifically -account workers contributing family work. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 85 matters tourism’ capacity alleviate poverty poor trapped vulnerable tourism jobs poor working conditions jobs -skilled added. Public policy play important role promoting working conditions. Governments skilled vulnerable jobs move higher, added positions training, private tourism enterprises. similar role expected national international tourism firms, .. creating incentives invest employee training. instance, countries FDI policies provisions local content employment training employees promote skills knowledge transfer. 3.3 Youth tourism Africa benefits young workforce, owing population structure, continent benefit demographic dividend. immense opportunity continent, realization depend creation sufficient decent jobs, young. workers hotels, catering tourism sector age 25 (ILO, 2017a), tourism contribute absorbing youth eager work grow. 3.3.1 Youth employment Owing declining mortality fertility rates, size structure African population transformed. proportion working-age people (ages 15–64) increase 54 cent population 2010, peak 64 cent 2090 (Drummond al., 2014). change population structure expected provide Africa demographic dividend, , boom working age population, rapidly accelerate economic growth harnessed effectively. total number young working people (ages 15–24) increased rapidly Africa, 44 million 1950 230 million 2015, share total population remained stable 19 cent (Department Economic Social Affairs, 2015). forecasts, estimated Africa 300 million young people 2060 (Department Economic Social Affairs, 2015). continent , , struggled provide employment opportunities youth. unemployment widespread phenomenon Africa, figure 13 demonstrates young people affected. Amare (2014) finds Africa youth unemployed elders. 25 years, youth unemployment rate Africa fluctuated 18 cent. employment challenge youth Africa, , extends Economic Development Africa Report 2017 86 job creation, underemployment youth widespread concern rural areas agricultural sector (Fox al., 2016; UNCTAD, 2013b). Data African countries average youth underemployment rate approximately 15  cent 2011 (ILO, 2017a). significant subregional variations . Figure 14 shows youth unemployment concern Northern Southern Africa. subregions, young people constitute higher proportion total population subregions, begun developing significant demographic dividend. rest Africa youth populations youth unemployment swell, prepare . Africa, unemployment rates higher young women young men, reaching 19.2 cent 15.8 cent 2014. , unemployment major concern uneducated educated youth. 10 million graduates African universities year fail Figure 13 Africa: Unemployment rates age sex, 1991–2014 (Percentage) 0 5 10 15 20 25 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Female youth unemployment ( female youth labour force) Male youth unemployment ( male youth labour force) Male unemployment ( male labour force) Female unemployment ( female labour force) Source: World Bank, 2017. Note: Youth defined comprising ages 15–24. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 87 Figure 14 Africa: Youth unemployment rate subregion, 1991–2014 (Percentage) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 20141991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 North Africa East Africa Middle Africa Southern Africa Western Africa Source: World Bank, 2017. find job (African Center Economic Transformation, 2016). United Republic Tanzania, unemployment rates higher people completed secondary education (Amare, 2014). total 31.1 cent unemployed Egypt completed tertiary-level education 2013 (World Bank, 2017a). unemployment rates point apparent paradox chronic skills deficit reported employers number educated unemployed youth. suggests mismatch training education received young people skills demand African employers. EY (2015), technical professional skills reportedly demand employers sectors, including tourism, Africa. demographic dividend generally viewed enormous opportunity dependency ratio population decreases. realize benefits dividend, jobs needed young workers skills correspond jobs. imperative countries prepare opportunity. Tourism contribute harnessing demographic dividend means. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 88 3.3.2 Enabling youth participate tourism sector line discussion poverty, tourism provide significant employment opportunities young people owing labour intensity underlying characteristics. tourism jobs high-energy pursuits suited young -bodied employees demand long shifts standing walking (Baum, 2013). Additionally, variety jobs transferable skills tourism sector attractive beginning career (London School Economics, 2015). 25 cent African youth illiterate (African Development Bank, 2011a) sector contribute employment -skilled jobs. entry point, youth enabled build skills. key factor enabling youth enter tourism workforce grow ability acquire skills needed valued sector. Analysis national development plans shown African countries (39 sample 49 countries) tourism hospitality school dedicated hospitality department universities. quality training facilities varies, countries’ interest sector awareness capacity-building tourism. instance, Ghana, institutions offer range courses tourism leisure management, country lacks international-class tourism school. Ghana Tourism Authority seeking establish tourism school public–private partnership international hospitality institution, provide teaching relevant industry demands (Oxford Business Group, 2017). project aims create school immerses students practical tourism work, tourism education models Africa focused learning management tourism-sector theories. Enhancing hospitality schools positive externality tourism employers absorb staff training costs. Tourism business owners burden staff training development great (Khowala, 2015). World Travel Tourism Council (2015) maintains tourism firms globally Africa invest significantly employee training address skills shortages tourism sector. Compared world regions, youth Africa opportunities acquire practical relevant skills vocational training. instance, 3 cent African students enrolled technical vocational education training courses, compared 18 cent Chinese students (UNCTAD, 2014d). Tourism transformative inclusive growth 89 24 ILO (2017b), informal apprenticeship “system young appren- tice acquires skills trade craft micro [enterprise] small enterprise learning working side side experienced practitioner […] training agreement embedded local norms traditions society”. ILO recommended informal apprenticeship systems24 extended tourism sector boost vocational attainment (ILO, 2012b). contribute young talent large- small-scale tourism enterprises promote greater youth entrepreneurship tourism. 3.4 Women, gender tourism section examines role opportunities women tourism sector Africa. section discusses differential impacts tourism women men understand gender dimension sector. 3.4.1 Role women gender African tourism policies role women African tourism policies appreciated promoted countries Africa. national level, African national development plans explicitly tourism promote role women. Gendered strategies adopted, gender mainstreaming exercises Botswana departments including Ministry Wildlife, Environment Tourism (United Nations Development Programme, 2012). regional level, promotion role women tourism featured tourism development plans IGAD SADC. SADC published gender mainstreaming resource kit (SADC, 2009) outlines ways recognize impact policy (including tourism policy) women, Regional Tourism Organization Southern Africa hosts annual Women Tourism Conference discuss gendered tourism issues. Featuring gender tourism agendas consistent approaches international bodies. , UNWTO gender mainstreaming tourism strategy aimed improving gendered policies national development strategies, UNCTAD considered relevance gender tourism publications (UNCTAD, 2011; UNCTAD, 2014d), impact trade liberalization men women sectors. 3.4.2 Female labour participation tourism Women play significant role tourism industries. Globally, women approximately jobs hotels restaurants sector (UNWTO UN Economic Development Africa Report 2017 90 Women, 2011).25 Figure  4 chapter 1 shows African countries accessible data, women majority tourism employees. Notable exceptions 2014 Algeria, Egypt Morocco women represent 17.4 cent, 24.1 cent 27 cent total labour force (World Bank, 2017), indicating female labour participation unique tourism countries. direct employment, women constitute significant portions sectors linked tourism. Women approximately 70 cent agricultural labour Africa. global African craft sector generally recognized large employer women sector encourages female entrepreneurship (Matsinde, 2015). employment provide supplementary income, farming seasons, expand response demand tourists. Women significantly involved tourism business owners employers. Globally, tourism sector female employers sector. Africa trend, 30.5 cent female employers compared 20.8 cent . Botswana Ethiopia global top 10 countries female employers hotels restaurants sector, 50 cent hotel restaurant businesses run women (UNWTO UN Women, 2011). 3.4.3 Gender considerations tourism employment Tourism employment gender neutral Africa, women men necessarily opportunities benefits sector. sector marked horizontal segregation, men women dominate occupations status. total 90 cent employed paid tourism occupations including servers, cleaners, travel agency sales persons tour guides26 women. Men employed bartenders, porters, gardeners maintenance construction workers (Baum, 2013). Stereotypes traditional female housework roles contribute segregation, “female” positions extensions typical domestic work cleaning caring duties. Case studies horizontal segregation women “crowding” limited range professions men, increasing supply labour female-dominated positions increasing competition suppressing wages (Casele Posel, 2011). Ethnicity intersect gender determine jobs individuals access. , study South Africa racial groups, 25 sector treated indicative employment tourism sector , lack relevant data. 26 chapter 2, footnote 18. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 91 black African women groups employed male-dominated occupations sectors, suggesting ethnicity act contributor horizontal segregation (Parashar, 2014). occupational segregation fourth quarterly national statistics South Africa 2016; case, largest racial group employed -skilled employment black African women (43.3 cent, compared 0.7 cent white women (Statistics South Africa, 2016)). phenomenon observed African countries ( Brenton al., 2013). tourism jobs dominated men Africa tend gainful, stable, formal secure occupied women. , female-dominated jobs listed -skilled compared male jobs (Baum, 2013). , female wages due mentioned “crowding” effect. , women tend adding stable jobs men (Baum, 2013). instance, women redundant positions men tourism sector global financial crisis (UNCTAD, 2014d). risk abuse customers higher women occupy positions involve greater customer interaction. Discrimination harassment superiors colleagues exacerbates horizontal segregation limiting female access male-dominated fields. calls increasing awareness gender-based discrimination workplace (European Commission, 2009). Figure 15 women men engage vulnerable employment tourism sector Africa (UNWTO UN Women, 2011). figure Figure 15 Africa: Women men vulnerable employment hotels restaurants sector (Percentage) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 -account workers contributing family workers MenWomen Source: UNWTO UN Women, 2011. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 92 shows slightly men women -account workers hotels restaurants sector, women men contributing family workers sector. total 73 cent tourism contributing family workers women. raises concerns, female contributing family workers dependent male relatives run enterprises. restricts vulnerable women’ access income empowerment employment vulnerable men. Women contributing significantly tourism enterprises community development, solo -account workers, reaping benefits work vulnerable men sector (ILO, 2012a). Vertical segregation, men dominate higher status jobs, concern tourism. women high-level leadership management positions tourism sector Africa compared sectors, women men positions. Cultural biases, executive working hours, negative female perceptions role demands management, direct gender discrimination lack female mentors account (Nyaruwata Nyaruwata, 2013). Women access career development opportunities men, including training empowerment programmes (Ferguson, 2009; Herath, 2011). , compared sectors, female leadership tourism high. Women constitute 36 cent tourism ministers Africa, highest percentage world (UNWTO UN Women, 2011). , private transportation, logistics tourism sector, 28 cent middle management 29  cent senior management positions filled women (Moodley al., 2016). result successful initiatives African countries. instance, Zimbabwe national gender mainstreaming policy tourism contributed increase number women management positions main hotel groups (4 11 chief executive officers women 2011) including gender considerations policy planning (Madzara, 2011). Tourism management opportunities open women, higher educational attainment extensive experience. Developing training programmes give greater management opportunities women long- term aim promoted. considerable gender pay gap tourism sector. hotels restaurants sector, women earn average 10 cent men worldwide Africa. Women’ earnings percentage men’ earnings Africa drops 57 cent hotels restaurants sector Botswana (UNWTO Tourism transformative inclusive growth 93 UN Women, 2011). gaps high relative sectors (Ñopo al., 2011). factors contribute , including direct discrimination women, higher female participation informal unpaid labour, restricted working hours women childcare responsibilities, crowding effects (Casele Posel, 2011) horizontal vertical segregation. Tackling gender pay gap contribute enabling women secure solid incomes, tourism jobs comparatively remunerated compared informal sector activities Africa. South Africa, instance, average Figure 16 Percentage men women account financial institution, 2014 Ni ge Gu ea Ch ad ad ag ca al ia Bu ru Se ne ga De oc ra tic ep . Ca er oo yp Su da al Si er ra eo ne Bu rk Fa ô te ’Iv oi al aw ng Zi ba bw ite . za ni au rit ia Tu ni si op ia la Ga bo Za bi Rw da Ni ge ria Gh Bo ts ut Af ric au rit iu MenWomen 20 40 60 80 100 0 Source: World Bank, 2017. Note: Ages 15 . Economic Development Africa Report 2017 94 (-reported) wage hospitality workers R11,769 ($909) month, higher current R3,500 ($270) month minimum wage (Beaven, 2016). ability set tourism-linked business grow greatly depends access finance. Globally, approximately 80 cent tourism workforce located small medium-sized enterprises set men women recognize opportunities exploit tourism markets communities (ILO, 2010a). entrepreneurial opportunities constrained Africa, , lack access finance grow tourism businesses. access formal sources finance Africa women men, country data , women men access account financial institution (figure 16). African Development Bank’ Growth-oriented Women Enterprises Development Programme seeks increase female access finance local bank partnerships selected countries, national customary laws provide critical barriers women (African Development Bank, 2007). Policies facilitate growth spread banks, improved access banking technology, mobile telephones, improve access finance entrepreneurship opportunities tourism women men (JP, 2012). Finally, lack access training education constrain tourism employment entrepreneurship. prerequisite access training literacy. thirds illiterate African adults women (United Nations Educational, Scientific Cultural Organization, 2017), face hurdles accessing tourism training. UNCTAD (2015d) finds literate women excluded vocational - -job training increase chances securing higher-skilled jobs. Gender stereotypes, women’ participation labour market intermittent, render firms reluctant “invest” women, reserving training men. , time mobility constraints exclude women extension programmes employment support services. , literacy, foreign language, information technology economic skills demanded tourism, deficit significant barrier increasing female participation tourism. gender considerations highlight differences opportunities experiences men women tourism sector Africa. Reducing barriers contribute equal opportunities empowerment, enable women greater contribution sector. true decent work championed tourism policy. Importantly, , women locations, ethnicities, income groups, . face challenges outlined ways degrees women homogenous group. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 95 3.4.4 Enriching tourism higher female participation Giving women greater access economic opportunities tourism inherently valuable essential secure inclusive growth. Enhancing women’ inclusion tourism benefits tourism development generally. Higher participation women tourism positively economic growth (UN Women, 2015). Facilitating employment individuals wider pool talent maximizes productive capacities firms countries (UN-Habitat, 2010). , enabling female labour participation decreases fertility rate, lowers dependency rates increases savings investments; turn boosts growth. estimated factors contributed East Asian capita GDP growth 1965 1990 (UN-Habitat, 2010). Similarly, total annual economic losses estimated $255 billion Africa due gender gaps labour market (Bandara, 2015). important female labour participation access female talent pools facilitated encouraged. Women capacity contribute tourism product diversification, women rural areas strong community ties. Owing traditional skills (including farming cooking) cultural awareness, potential set join enterprises provide cultural artefacts, handicrafts agricultural environmental services enhance variety tourism services products. fact, skills demand tourism sector, ecotourism pursuits (UNWTO, 2012), surge demand authentic travel experiences based learning lives traditions local people (Expedia, 2013; chapter 2). products services produced marketed homes communities. women face barriers entering labour market due domestic responsibilities cultural norms ( Northern Africa) confine households local areas, tourism sector provide employment opportunities women pursue remaining traditional carer roles. similarities household work tourism jobs jobs conducive greater female autonomy providing opportunities gain income utilizing existing skills resources. , suggest women limited opportunities, offer opportunities women primary carers mobility. Cultural Tourism Programme United Republic Tanzania established 41  cultural tourism enterprises facilitate cultural tourism excursions led local people natural environments. cultural tourism enterprise involves Economic Development Africa Report 2017 96 women Mulala village (Arusha region) organize tourism activities tours local cheese-making units honey harvesting farms guided hikes local natural sites. cultural practices natural environment women develop tourism products bring income community (Cultural Tourism Programme, 2012). Agricultural products farmed women developed tourism markets. project Kenya targeted female cooperative groups soft loans training stimulated involvement 268 women growing -traditional produce sustained part linkages tourism sector (ILO, 2012c). addition, evidence suggests empowering women tourism increase investments local households, communities public goods provision levels. , profits beach resort run women Kilifi District Kenya build subsidized health-care centre, nursery school free water facility local area (UNWTO UN Women, 2011). Evidence world increasing share household income controlled women ( increasing earnings) increases amount spent child - (UN-Habitat, 2010). , women’ entry tourism contribute protection local environments cultures. rural women, , encouraged strengthen engagement local agricultural ( agrotourism)27 cultural tourism pursuits, efforts women preserve resources enable activities. avoid degradation natural resources, marketing beauty community tourists, erosion local culture, protection careful marketing culture true owners creators cultural products. project Burkina Faso entitled “ salt, fish, gold cola routes” highlighted factors practice. project aimed increasing tourist encounters local people Burkina Faso encouraging development tourist circuits rural areas, granting rural communities access tourist markets. recognized order avoid damage local cultural social identities, strongly develop provision crafts, cuisine arts rural areas conserve culture. sought develop pursuits “ involvement women”, highlighting strong relationship exists promotion women tourism improvement protection communities (United Nations Educational, Scientific Cultural Organization, 2004). 27 Agrotourism refers tourism linked agricultural products facilities. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 97 Female participation tourism facilitated boosted measures. , important women considered tourism employment skill levels. Efforts undertaken improve working conditions sector tourism jobs comply decent work requirements. important encourage training enable tourism workers aspire higher added jobs greater variety jobs. , encouraging female entrepreneurship tourism create sector place women forefront tourism innovation. previously mentioned, tourism sectors world female employers sector (UNWTO UN Women, 2011), highlighting women’ excellence field benefits reaped supported effectively. women contribute significantly tourism growth, growth inherently seek improve positions women inclusive. primary aim section identify ways tourism increase breadth choice women Africa occupations everyday lives. Efforts continue extend female choice freedom measures outlined . , gaining access basic community-based tourism income improve female bargaining power autonomy, policymakers wary women trapped home-based traditional tourism positions. 3.5 Conclusions chapter shows tourism potential foster inclusion providing economic employment opportunities excluded vulnerable groups poor, youth women. Tourism inherently inclusive sector, offering avenue foster inclusive growth. , countries tourism sector dominant, vulnerable employment rate (ILO, 2012a). expanding tourism sector assist vulnerable workers Africa, contribute decent work opportunities. , tourism sector characterized high female participation, contribute economic growth (UN Women, 2015). Women tourism employees contribute significantly sectors link tourism, agriculture. supplementary source income, tourism jobs contribute greatly sustainable livelihoods. Critically, Africa, women significantly involved tourism business owners employers, 30.5 cent employers female compared 20.8 cent . , female-dominated Economic Development Africa Report 2017 98 tourism employment empowers women drive future tourism growth benefit . , tourism sector employs large number young people wide variety educational attainment skill levels. demographic dividend begins emerge grow Africa, tourism sector identified significant potential effectively harness labour provide productive employment opportunities -suited young workers. young workers adequately prepared skills demanded sector, absorbed tourism labour market contribute stronger inclusive growth. Lastly, tourism economic opportunities skilled individuals including rural areas traditionally located growing labour opportunities. tourists “authentic” experiences products means tourism markets brought poorer rural people lack access formal markets. , poor disproportionately represented rural areas agricultural sector, tourism demand agricultural products provide additional income group. longer term, efforts enable tourism employment enterprises move initial entry positions. Training empowerment opportunities vulnerable people move added, secure higher positions workforce. wide scope tourism room give people meaningful choice source income. vulnerability tourism employment compared sectors, offers poor, women youth opportunities enter thrive means harness emerging demographic dividend, tourism merits attention, investment development. CHAPTER 4 Increasing intraregional tourism deepening regional integration chapter focuses intraregional tourism supportive role regional integration shows continental tourism Africa important terms scope , similarly global trends. chapter explore intraregional tourism important theoretical point view, quantifying intraregional tourism characterizing intraregional tourists assess current scope potential. , chapter examines role regional integration facilitate intraregional tourism, focusing discussion free movement persons, regional tourism policy, currency convertibility air connectivity. 2/10 international tourists originate Africa Northern Africa 2/3 international tourists originate Africa -Saharan Africa Regional integration supports intraregional tourism streamlined visa requirements opening skies convertible currencies tourism policy 4/10 international tourists Africa originate Africa VISA Tourism transformative inclusive growth 101 4.1 Continental tourism tourism industry Africa traditionally targeted international tourists Africa. source markets, Europe North America, offered comparatively affluent populations sufficiently high incomes opportunity travel. Tourists Europe North America brought sorely needed foreign exchange substantial contributions balance payments African countries, including today. period 1995-2014, tourism export revenues consistently contributed 42 cent Africa’ services exports (chapter 1). tourism industry tourism product predominantly structured designed international tourists Africa. 20 years, Africans obtained means travel enjoy tourism result increasing disposable incomes affordable transport. 1995, 15.2 million Africans travelled ; number increased 19.2 million 2000, 26.9 million 2005, 36 million 2010 44.3 million 2014 (UNWTO, 2016a).28 Outbound travel Africans 2005 2015 registered highest growth rate (6.2 cent), 6.6 cent growth rate Asia Pacific region (UNWTO, 2016a). Africa’ international travel place Africa. Figure 17 shows 4 10 international tourists Africa originated Africa 2010–2013.29 share recorded increase 34.4 cent 2010 40.3 cent 2013. distinguish Northern -Saharan Africa, share arrivals continent Northern Africa increased 13.7 cent 2010 17.7 cent 2013. -Saharan Africa, share remained stable 64 cent; approximately tourists -Saharan Africa originate continent. Analysing composition African countries reveals share fluctuates significantly. 2013 international tourist arrivals Africa Cabo Verde accounted 1 cent total international tourist arrivals, respective share Lesotho reached 95 cent. average, 2010-2013 share 15 cent 7 countries: Cabo Verde, Morocco, 28 UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2016a. UNWTO region Africa include Egypt Libya, outbound travel countries added reflect region defined UNCTAD. 29 Data based 31 African countries data total international tourist arrivals Africa international tourist arrivals Africa African countries period 2010–2013. Data 31 countries account 90 cent total international tourist arrivals Africa (chapter 1,table 1). 2/10 international tourists originate Africa Northern Africa 2/3 international tourists originate Africa -Saharan Africa Regional integration supports intraregional tourism streamlined visa requirements opening skies convertible currencies tourism policy 4/10 international tourists Africa originate Africa VISA Economic Development Africa Report 2017 102 Egypt, Gambia, Seychelles, Mauritius Sudan. countries, exception Sudan, major destinations European tourists leisure holidays, beach holidays. share exceeds average 85 cent countries, Lesotho, Rwanda, Swaziland Zimbabwe. countries landlocked distant traditional tourist source markets. shown figure 17, absolute number cross-border tourist arrivals Africa Africa slightly increased reference period international arrivals slowed 2011 picked , albeit level, 2012. decline reflects drop arrivals Africa wake Arab Spring. drop pronounced Northern Africa, -Saharan Africa arrivals continent Africa steadily increased. share continental tourists total international tourist arrivals Africa increasing, global average. UNWTO estimates worldwide arrivals originate region (UNWTO, 2016a). Regional markets significant terms volume. Figure 17 International tourist arrivals Africa world Africa, 2010–2013 (Millions) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2010 2011 2012 2013 International tourist arrivals (world) International tourist arrivals Africa Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2017. Note: Sample includes 31 African countries data . Tourism transformative inclusive growth 103 difficult assess continental tourism, owing scarcity bilateral data international tourism receipts. African country bilateral data travel services exports Tunisia. data show , instance, 2009 2010, average travel export revenue generated tourists Algeria amounted $112 arrival; Libya, $157; Morocco, $235; Egypt, $446. contrast, international tourism receipts generated inbound tourists amounted $345 arrival period. estimates regional tourists South African quarterly performance report (South African Tourism, 2016). shows total foreign spending subregion highest tourists arriving Africa-land,30 includes members SADC region. instance, 2014, Africa-land accounted 57 cent total foreign spending. report shows 2014, average spending day R600 Africa-land tourists, R1,000 Africa-air tourists R800 European tourists. , South Africa Tunisia, continental intraregional tourists terms spending contributes greatly tourism revenues, discussed . International tourism component tourism demand Africa; domestic tourism. UNWTO (2016a), 5 6 billion domestic tourists worldwide, number increasing. Domestic tourists greatly outnumber international tourists, case Africa.31 terms spending, comparison international tourism receipts domestic tourism spending Africa suggests flows increased 1995 2014, domestic spending higher international tourism receipts, growing gap 2003 (figure 18).32 literature research tourism development, , focus international tourism, owing higher capita expenditure international tourists 30 Includes countries tourists tend arrive land ground trans- port: Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia Zimbabwe (South African Tourism, 2016). Africa-air includes African countries Middle East tourists typically arrive air. 31 statistics domestic tourists Africa, UNWTO dataset - mestic tourism inference. Africa, dataset includes trips Egypt South Africa, shows 2014, countries jointly recorded 50.2 million domestic tourism trips. number close total number international tourist arrivals Africa 2014 (62.8 million) suggests domestic tourists Africa outnumber interna- tional tourist arrivals. 32 Statistics international tourism receipts derived UNWTO data, - mestic tourism spending estimates based data World Travel Tourism Council. sources spending categories, limiting comparison. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 104 domestic tourists source foreign exchange. , contribution domestic tourists substantial, -trip basis. Data years suggest domestic tourism spending South Africa trip amount generated international tourist terms travel expenditure, Egypt gap narrowed 70 cent (UNWTO, 2017; World Travel Tourism Council, 2017).33 , expected regional demand tourism services increase, owing rise disposable incomes middle class Africa. UNWTO al. (2015) estimate 15 19 countries expected move -income middle-income nations 20 years African. higher disposable incomes, transport relaxed visa policies underpin trend provide Africans means travel . , Africans consuming considerable amounts tourism services intraregional, continental domestic travel, numbers increasing. Figure 18 International tourism receipts compared domestic tourism spending Africa, 1995–2014 (Billion dollars) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Bi lli ol la rs International tourism receipts Domestic tourism spending Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2017 World Travel Tourism Council, 2017. 33 Domestic tourism spending defined World Travel Tourism Council spending country country’ residents business leisure trips ( https://tool.wttc.org/). Tourism transformative inclusive growth 105 generates diverse economic opportunities, discussed previous chapters. remainder chapter focuses regional integration, plays important role developing tourism Africa. Regional integration boost intraregional tourism regional protocols trade agreements facilitate movement persons relaxed visa regimes enable people work set business. Similarly, regional bodies tap potential regional tourism recognize potential plan systematically. Regional integration aims facilitate exchange currencies, lowers transaction costs tourists. Finally, regional integration promote tourism region investing facilitating transport, air transport. 4.2 case intraregional tourism Intraregional tourism characteristics valuable relation international tourism Africa. -cited concern international tourism high degree leakage market segments, , share tourism income retained local economy ( chapter 2). estimated average leakage developing countries 40 50 cent gross tourism earnings (UNCTAD, 2013a). Leakage occurs weak linkages limits multiplier effects, reducing sector’ positive economic impact development potential. Compared international tourism Africa, intraregional continental tourism build stronger local linkages, making greater locally supplied food building materials labour. Intraregional continental tourism characterized higher levels local spending (Kiambo, 2014). attributed greater demand continental tourists — similarly domestic tourists — local food products similar tastes, possibly demanding standards, facilitates market entry local suppliers. , continental tourists familiar local context venture hotels resorts spend money local transport, entertainment, food services. result, intraregional continental tourism degree leakage tourism Africa. concern international tourism seasonality. Destinations South depend travellers Europe North America tend record strong fluctuations, visited boreal winters. Continental tourism evenly distributed year reduce effects seasonality contribute stable employment. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 106 Intraregional tourism social benefits. , greater understanding valuing cultures, closer economic ties, promote tolerance nations. diminish potential conflict contribute peace. Chapter 5 discusses issue detail. 4.3 Intraregional tourism: Scope potential stated previously, number African tourists increasing steadily, Africans travel destinations Africa (figure 17). actual magnitude intraregional tourism answer question, data bilateral flows international tourist arrivals compiled specifically report. data compilation . UNWTO database bilateral data 43 54 African countries. , countries report flows aggregate level ( , Burundi reports international tourist arrivals Africa disclosing countries) single countries, limits ability data calculate intraregional tourist arrivals. Data coverage varies greatly, depending year. reasons, calculation intraregional tourism limited 2010–2013, analysis includes regional economic communities data members . regional economic communities included Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), COMESA, East African Community (EAC) SADC.34 regional economic communities informative Eastern, Northern Southern Africa, omit developments Western Central Africa. Box 5 attempts partially fill gap providing information Economic Community West African States (ECOWAS), sample covering 2012 2013. Data coverage Central Africa insufficient analysis. light restrictions, analysis focuses shares, absolute numbers. shares intraregional tourist arrivals total international tourist arrivals vary greatly regional economic communities (figure 19). COMESA smallest share ( average, 15 cent), SADC largest (65 cent). AMU, COMESA EAC increased reporting period, SADC decreased slightly. comparatively high share intraregional tourists total tourist arrivals SADC due factors: farthest traditional tourist source markets, 34 Data members -mentioned regional economic communities: Algeria, Morocco Tunisia (AMU); Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia Zimbabwe (COMESA); Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda United Republic Tanzania (EAC); Angola, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, United Republic Tanzania, Zambia Zimbabwe (SADC). figures 19 20. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 107 good transport infrastructure networks, includes dominant affluent economy, South Africa. , Community comparatively high standard living, rising. Rogerson (2011) maintains regional tourism phenomenon South Africa Southern Africa. importance intraregional tourism SADC reflected figure 20, depicts arrivals Africa . figure shows share intraregional tourist arrivals tourist arrivals continent. SADC AMU, intraregional tourists account international tourists arriving continent. , dominant flows intraregional tourists arrivals Algeria Libya Tunisia. African Development Bank (2011b), Tunisia preferred destination Libyan tourists 2003. Tunisia main tourist destination Algerians, recording steep increase 2014 2015. Source markets continent diversified EAC COMESA. EAC, intraregional tourist arrivals share tourist arrivals Africa fluctuated 60 cent, share intraregional tourist arrivals Figure 19 Intraregional tourist arrivals share total international tourist arrivals Africa, 2010–2013 (Percentage) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 2010 2011 2012 2013 Arab Maghreb Union Common Market Eastern Southern Africa East African Community Southern African Development Community Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2017 Kenya National Bureau Statistics, 2016. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 108 international tourist arrivals. COMESA, share intraregional tourist arrivals arrivals continent grew 36.7 cent 2010 47.5 cent 2013, times greater share intraregional tourist arrivals international tourist arrivals. Figure 20 shows shares remarkably stable reporting period AMU, EAC SADC, increase reported COMESA. intraregional tourists common patterns regional economic communities means characterizing intraregional tourists analyse purposes trips, , travel personal reasons35 / business professional reasons. categories matter, reflect expenditure patterns. instance, leisure tourists stay hotel eat restaurants, tourists visiting relatives stay relatives eat considerably home. Figure 20 Intraregional tourist arrivals share tourist arrivals continent, 2010–2013 (Percentage) Arab Maghreb Union Common Market Eastern Southern Africa East African Community Southern African Development Community 0 20 40 60 80 100 2010 2011 2012 2013 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2017 Kenya National Bureau Statistics, 2016. 35 Holidays, leisure recreation, personal purposes visiting friends relatives, religious pilgrimages, health education. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 109 Data international tourist arrivals purpose travel aggregate level. Figure 21 shows main purpose travel international tourist arrivals Africa 2014 holidays, leisure recreation (63 cent), personal purposes (23 cent) business professional purposes (14 cent). Continental data – international arrivals Africa – purpose travel , national reports. examples Botswana, Kenya South Africa panels –. Panel shows purpose international travel differs substantially domestic travel Egypt South Africa, dominated trips personal purposes. terms intraregional travel, panels – figure 21 indicative. Panel shows leisure important purpose African visitors arriving South Africa land, originating countries SADC. main leisure activities shopping social activities; trips motivated watching wildlife, enjoying beaches visiting natural attractions. reflects reality shopping prime regional travel motivation, personal business reasons (Rogerson, 2011).36 Johannesburg turned regional shopping trading hub cross-border shoppers traders.37 neighbouring countries offer limited choice goods, trip close destination offers wider range products prime travel motivation. Conversely, cross-border traders purchase goods South Africa resale home economies, goods short supply (Rogerson, 2011). Nairobi illustration phenomenon – worldwide trend. UNWTO (2014), shopping determining factor affecting choice destination developed developing countries. Shopping, entertainment, business sports tourism, critical components growing concept urban tourism. Business tourists major category regional tourists. Globalization increasing regional integration boosted economic ties business flows countries. formal business tourists38 included business tourism category, subcategory — informal cross-border traders39 migrant entrepreneurs. 36 Shopping understood broad sense, , shopping range consumer goods, including clothing, groceries appliances. 37 true Africans arriving air land. 38 Formal business tourism relates travelling purposes meetings, incentives, conferences exhibitions. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 110 ongoing debate data accurately reliably recorded. UNWTO (2016b), border, seasonal short-term workers, long-term students included tourist arrivals data. , scholars suggest cross-border traders included business tourist category. vein Gladstone (2005), Rogerson (2014) argues traditional definition business tourism “excludes vast array informal sector business travel tourists – international domestic – constitute critical element Africa’ business tourism landscape”. authors suggest distinction formal informal sector tourism , business tourism category distinction formal informal sector business tourism. , informal sector business tourism predominantly include migrant entrepreneurs cross-border traders. distinction relevant, respect large volume informal business tourists African countries terms services consume, pattern impact (Rogerson, 2014). International Organization Migration (2010) Peberdy (2000), , informal business tourism widespread South Africa countries Southern Africa, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland Zimbabwe. reflected Botswana, inbound business travellers originate Zimbabwe, suggesting informal cross-border traders (Statistics Botswana, 2016). Western Central Africa, business tourism represents largest component tourism economies (Twining-Ward, 2009; box 5). Northern Africa, significant inflow consumer goods Tunisia Libya informal trade (African Development Bank, 2011b), suggesting informal traders migrant entrepreneurs travelling countries. debate categorization tourists ( cross- border trader tourist) points capacity issue. -mentioned UNWTO methodology refers counted, suggesting practice capacity constraints identifying travellers belonging category recording -tourists. Panel (Botswana) shows category “ personal purposes” important, subcategory “visiting friends relatives”, 39 studies carried Africa, gender important consideration cross-border trading, informal cross-border traders women (Brenton Isik, 2012; Njiwa al., 2011). Women traders play key role food security borders, incomes earn activities critical households (Brenton al., 2013). , cross-border trading high-risk activity women, face poor conditions harassment border crossings (Njikam Tchouassi, 2011). Tourism transformative inclusive growth 111 Figure 21 Main purposes travel Africa selected countries, 2014 14 23 18 38 31 32 32 76 15 9 44 77 63 15 8 ) International tourist arrivals Africa ) Foreign visitors Africa-air South Africa ) Arrivals Africa Botswana ) Departing African international visitors Kenya ) Domestic tourism Egypt South Africa ) Foreign visitors Africa-land South Africa Holidays Transit Business Leisure personal purposes (.. medical, religion)Business Leisure personal purposes (.. medical, religion)Business Holidays personal purposes (.. visiting friends relatives, returning resident) Business Transit Holiday, leisure recreation personal purposesBusiness Holidays personal purposes Business 4 17 79 5 Source: Kenya National Bureau Statistics, 2016; South African Tourism, 2016; Statistics Botswana, 2016; UNWTO, 2017. Note: Panels –: Based national reports categorization purposes visit entry. Panels : Based data UNWTO, 2017 categorization purposes arrivals trips. “Visiting friends relatives” recorded “ personal purposes” data UNWTO, 2017, Statistics Botswana, 2016, “leisure” South African Tourism, 2016. Panels , business includes professional services. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 112 segment pie chart. leisure subcategory “social”, reported South Africa (part panels shown separately) relate visiting friends relatives. migration levels high Africa, subcategory relevant countries. instance, 2010 – prior Arab Spring – outflows 451,000 tourists Libya Egypt 1.8 million tourists Libya Tunisia recorded. ILO, million migrants worked Libya uprising regime Libya, number predominantly included workers neighbouring countries Chad, Egypt, Sudan Tunisia (www.afronline.org/=13645). Migrant workers visit relatives home periodically festivities contribute tourist arrivals. corroborates observation border crossings busy holiday season. Panels “transit” travel purpose. purpose recorded separately, wide Botswana Kenya suggests major transit countries. analysis suggests challenging characterize African regional tourist data limitations. , inferences . Urban tourism, shopping , increasingly common travel motivation. cross-border shoppers traders, highlighting debate definition business tourists. Informal business tourists constitute large share tourists Africa. migration flows, tourists visiting friends relatives account high volumes. important grasp profile regional tourists, large, increasing numbers, differences expenditure patterns demand tourists Africa. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 113 Box 5. Intraregional tourism ECOWAS Owing limited availability data bilateral flows international tourist arrivals, analysis intraregional tourism ECOWAS restricted 2012 2013. years, data recorded members regional economic community: Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone Togo. share intraregional tourist arrivals total international tourist arrivals increased 2012 2013 small (15  cent 23 cent ), similar AMU COMESA ( figure). Intraregional tourist arrivals, , accounted 54 cent arrivals continent 2012 66 cent 2013, suggesting residents Community travel predominantly increasingly Community. Box figure 2 Intraregional tourism ECOWAS, 2012 2013 (Percentage) Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2017. shares greatly depend tourist flows Nigeria, accounted 64 cent intraregional arrivals 2012 74 cent 2013. Arrivals Ghana Niger represent largest flows periods. economic power Nigeria region Community, assumed economy attracts visitors business purposes. data World Travel Tourism Council, business spending Nigeria grew 300 cent 2000 2015, reaching amount leisure spending. Twining-Ward (2009) suggests Western Central Africa, business tourism represents largest component tourism economies. , great 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 2012 2013 Intraregional tourist arrivals share total international tourist arrivals Africa Intraregional tourist arrivals share tourist arrivals continent Economic Development Africa Report 2017 114 4.4 role regional integration promoting intraregional tourism stated previous section, large volumes intraregional tourists Africa, intraregional tourism valuable contribution economy. factors regional level favourable intraregional tourism: open visa regime, enabling free movement persons; comprehensive regional tourism strategy; currencies convertible easily exchanged; convenient affordable transport, air transport. free movement persons, currency convertibility air transport essential components regional integration agendas, continent’ efforts deepen pan-African integration. Treaty Establishing African Economic Community (1991), Abuja Treaty, envisioned African regional economic communities establish common markets form basis future continent- wide common market. Member States agreed chapter VI Treaty “ adopt, individually, bilateral regional levels, measures, order achieve progressively free movement persons, ensure enjoyment residence establishment nationals Community”. establishment African monetary union eventually lead creation single currency contemplated article 44, integration air transport, deal business tourism occur informally, cross-border traders seasonal workers. 300,000 tourists travelling Niger Nigeria 2013 belong categories. South Africa contribution SADC, Nigeria major tourist source country ECOWAS. terms absolute numbers, intraregional tourist arrivals ECOWAS. sample, intraregional tourists Community countries data intraregional tourist arrivals AMU, COMESA, EAC SADC. addition, AMU EAC, sample countries smaller ECOWAS. corroborates finding tourism contributes smaller share GDP ECOWAS regional economic communities, fact integrated regional economic community, enabling citizens move freely member States. Factors contributing finding , Ghana, major tourist destination Community targets African tourists developed. appears lack specific tourism policies targeting African nationals; travel culture, compared regional economic communities SADC. Box 5 (contd.) Tourism transformative inclusive growth 115 article 61. Assembly African Union twenty-fourth ordinary session (2015) recognized commitment XXIV “ relevance objective Yamoussoukro Declaration African civil aviation policy adopted 7 October 1988 primary purpose create conducive environment development intra- African international air services”.40 Tourism context regional integration highlighted article 65 Abuja Treaty, calls member States strengthen intra-African cooperation tourism promote intra-African tourism. 4.4.1. Free movement persons Conceptually, free movement persons covers main types freedom: freedom move freely visa resident permit fellow member States, reside member State country origin establish country exercise employment undertake commercial industrial activities (Economic Commission Africa al., 2012). subsection discusses relevance free movement persons tourism industry examines progress implementing provisions protocols free movement persons regional economic community level free movement persons framed pan-African multilateral levels. Free movement persons intraregional tourism free movement persons relevant discussion main reasons: , deals ability tourists enter destination, , enables people seeking employment tourism sector work investors establish tourist destination. Entry visa issues Visa requirements central issue ability enter destination. Africa Visa Openness Report 2016 (African Development Bank African Union, 2016) notes , average, African national requires visas departure 55  cent African countries, obtain visas arrival 25 cent countries visa 20 cent countries. North Americans, , travel easily African countries Africans. processing visas costly terms time monetary . Relaxing visa requirements visitors save time money, destination attractive competitive tourists investors alike. Seychelles 40 Declaration Yamoussoukro African Air Transport Policy, http://reposi- tory.uneca.org/bitstream/handle/10855/13773/Bib-55144.pdfsequence=1. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 116 early visa reformer, allowing foreign nationals enter country visa. policy, aimed boosting tourism, resulted steep increase international tourism arrivals average annual growth rate 6.7 cent 2011 2014, compared 3.3 cent 1995 2014. Mauritius Rwanda similar strategies relaxing visa regimes 2013. Rwanda pioneer electronic visas, offering online visa applications biometric border management. visa openness enabler tourism development, correlation visa openness international tourist arrivals Africa Africa 2013 negative (-0.14). result popular tourist destinations Africa (South Africa Tunisia), terms arrivals Africa, restrictive visa regimes applicable tourists Africa (table 11). Factors relating tourism weigh considerations migration security design visa regimes countries. main factor contributing negative correlation African countries open visa regimes African visitors: major tourist destinations, Mozambique, Rwanda Uganda, offer openness. , comparison arrivals 2013 2010 suggest visa- open countries recorded higher increases number African tourists. , visa openness correlates (0.45) country’ share tourism GDP, suggesting countries comparatively large tourism sector open visa regimes reinforce tourism. visa requirements indicator World Economic Forum Travel Tourism Competitiveness Index, index correlates vaguely visa openness (0.1, shown table 11).41 boost regional tourism, regional economic communities offer process creating universal tourist visa, visa valid member countries join scheme. EAC, Kenya, Rwanda Uganda launched East African tourist visa, expected members follow suit. SADC, Botswana (park visits), Zambia Zimbabwe adopted Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) Univisa. ECOWAS process implementing joint visa -citizens Community (Eco-visa), Economic Community Central African States (ECCAS) progress initiative. study published UNWTO World Travel Tourism Council 2014, facilitative visa policy , improving delivery information, streamlining current processes, providing differentiated treatments key market segments, implementing electronic visa programmes establishing regional 41 Travel Tourism Competitiveness Index consists 4 subindices, 14 pillars 90 - dividual indicators. higher higher competitiveness. information, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/WEF_Global_Travel&Tourism_Report_2015.pdf. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 117 Table 11 Visa openness, number international tourist arrivals Africa Africa share tourism percentage gross domestic product, 2010–2015 COUNTRY VISA OPENNESS SCORE (2015) NUMBER OF INTERNATIONAL TOURIST ARRIVALS FROM AFRICA (2013) NUMBER OF INTERNATIONAL TOURIST ARRIVALS FROM AFRICA (2010) PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN NUMBER OF ARRIVALS (2013/2010) TOURISM AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (AVERAGE 2011–2015) Egypt 0.000 705 966 942 484 -25 12.3 Angola 0.033 224 345 76 668 193 4.1 Sudan 0.048 108 167 49 516 118 Ethiopia 0.052 221 619 143 747 54 10.3 Dem. Rep. Congo 0.1 72 701 20 301 258 1.7 Algeria 0.111 622 134 329 997 89 6.5 Morocco 0.167 437 086 292 621 49 18.2 Chad 0.204 67 568 34 218 97 3.8 Namibia 0.222 912 861 714 287 28 14.8 Congo 0.226 261 759 4.3 Tunisia 0.237 3 289 726 3 028 890 9 14.6 South Africa 0.259 6 856 050 5 740 829 19 9.2 Lesotho 0.278 408 371 400 823 2 13.2 Sierra Leone 0.278 21 789 10 845 101 5.3 Benin 0.296 135 327 138 985 -3 6.1 Botswana 0.315 1 182 191 1 787 369 -34 11.3 Swaziland 0.315 1 169 763 1 218 054 -4 4.4 Zimbabwe 0.319 1 570 799 1 951 981 -20 10.9 Niger 0.333 69 514 47 702 46 3.3 Nigeria 0.348 1 293 082 4 231 789 -69 4 ôte ’Ivoire 0.389 258 400 173 900 49 4.9 Zambia 0.419 720 465 583 357 24 6.4 Burkina Faso 0.456 107 708 128 237 -16 3.6 Gambia 0.496 22 808 2 274 903 20.5 United Rep. Tanzania 0.641 524 143 393 543 33 11.2 Economic Development Africa Report 2017 118 COUNTRY VISA OPENNESS SCORE (2015) NUMBER OF INTERNATIONAL TOURIST ARRIVALS FROM AFRICA (2013) NUMBER OF INTERNATIONAL TOURIST ARRIVALS FROM AFRICA (2010) PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN NUMBER OF ARRIVALS (2013/2010) TOURISM AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (AVERAGE 2011–2015) Guinea 0.7 20 405 4.5 Kenya 0.778 286 202 278 812 3 10.7 Madagascar 0.8 34 874 18 518 88 12.5 Mauritius 0.822 134 659 141 295 -5 26.5 Rwanda 0.822 993 968 548 074 81 8.6 Mozambique 0.83 1 580 523 1 465 793 8 7.2 Togo 0.856 149 499 110 821 35 8.8 Cabo Verde 0.859 1 321 218 506 43.4 Uganda 0.863 935 983 677 774 38 8.6 Mali 0.874 53 102 9.4 Seychelles 1 24 451 17 870 37 61.6 Source: UNCTAD calculations based African Development Bank African Union, 2016; UNWTO, 2017; World Travel Tourism Council, 2017. Note: sample 36 African countries data . visa openness score Africa Visa Openness Report 2016 reflects visa regimes August 2015. score based weighted categories: visa required, visa arrival visa required. high score high visa openness. International tourist arrivals Africa Africa derived UNWTO data. UNWTO region Africa include Egypt Libya, international tourist arrivals countries added reflect region defined UNCTAD. share tourism GDP World Travel Tourism Council data. Table 11 (contd.) agreements, helped increase tourist arrivals affected markets range 5  25 cent year average -year period. study conducted economies Group 20, implications relevant African context. African Union (2016) considers reduction elimination visa restrictions priority, : Visa policies important governmental formalities influencing free movement people Africa major negative impact intra-Africa air transport tourism demand. short term order improve mobility Africa, member States : () scal[] Tourism transformative inclusive growth 119 visa arrival programmes learning experiences Rwanda; () [simplify] visa application process (offering -visas); () [offer] long-dated visas (.. 10 years); () ensur[] positive reciprocity countries; () [encourage] visa-free regional blocks exemplified []EAC ECOWAS. work establish Protocols free movement persons relevant workers seeking employment tourism sector . importance type professions provisions granted relevant tourism sector. International Standard Classification Occupations 2008 (ISCO- 08) analysis, groups categories occupations based tasks duties performed skill level. ISCO-08 recognize identify tourism occupations , owing special character tourism cross-cutting economic activity (ILO, 2013), subcategories point reference. inferences types jobs occupations relevant sector. instance, subcategory hotel restaurant managers group managers, subcategories group services sales workers, assumed relevant tourism. EAC, Kenya committed opening ISCO-08 groups managers, professionals, technicians associate professionals, craft related trades workers. creates employment opportunities range professions occupations related tourism sector, core tourism occupations liberalized (group services sales workers).42 establish essential investors tourism. protocols tend grant rights investors commercial entrepreneurs small business vendors, investors unable establish capital requirements. Capital requirements business range $80,000 $1 million (Economic Commission Africa al., 2012). Regional economic community protocols free movement persons: Ratification implementation regional economic community recognizes importance free movement persons constitutive treaty / specific protocol agreement free movement persons. Table 12 summarizes relevant legal instruments free movement persons, ratification rates relevant protocols status implementation provisions regional economic community. table shows , exception IGAD Community Sahelo Saharan States (CEN-SAD), 42 www.eac.int/working-east-africa. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 120 Table 12 Ratification implementation protocols free movement persons regional economic communities REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITY RATIFICATION RATE CURRENT ENTRY AND VISA REQUIREMENTS FOR FELLOW REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITY NATIONALS DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNING THE RIGHT OF RESIDENCE AND RIGHT OF ESTABLISHMENT FOR FELLOW REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITY NATIONALS COMMON PASS- PORT REGIONAL TOURIST VISA AMU member States ratified respective protocol free movement persons. Nationals require visa entry 53 cent member States; nationals issued visa arrival 20 cent member States. Mauritania ratified protocol member State AMU guarantees freedom establishment equal treatment Mauritanians, foreign individuals legal entities. CEN-SAD Draft agreement free movement establishment persons territory member States Community Sahelo-Saharan States; protocol free movement inspired texts Economic Community West African States drawn . Nationals require visa entry 51 cent member States; nationals issued visa arrival 22 cent member States. Holders diplomatic passports require visa; plans extend privilege students, business people, athletes academics. COMESA 20 member States ratified Protocol Free Movement Persons, Labour, Services, Establishment Residence; 17 20 member States ratified Protocol Gradual Relaxation Eventual Elimination Visas. Nationals require visa entry 26 cent member States; nationals issued visa arrival 30 cent member States. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 121 REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITY RATIFICATION RATE CURRENT ENTRY AND VISA REQUIREMENTS FOR FELLOW REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITY NATIONALS DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNING THE RIGHT OF RESIDENCE AND RIGHT OF ESTABLISHMENT FOR FELLOW REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITY NATIONALS COMMON PASS- PORT REGIONAL TOURIST VISA EAC member States ratified Protocol Establishment East African Community Common Market. Nationals require visa entry 80 cent member States; nationals issued visa arrival 20 cent member States; special immigration counters. categories professions, including professions varying skills levels, workers member State allowed work EAC State; social security benefits accompanied spouse children; establishment; framework mutual recognition professional qualifications developed move harmonizing employment policies labour legislations. East Africa Tourist Visa (Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda) ECCAS 11 member States ratified respective protocol free movement persons. Nationals require visa entry 45 cent member States; nationals issued visa arrival 9 cent member States; separate passage entry borders. member States ratified protocol implemented establishment. Travel books cards progress ECOWAS 15 member States ratified respective protocol free movement persons. Visa-free entry ECOWAS citizens Residence cards; establishment granted; progress harmonizing education certificates, equal treatment nationals migrant workers challenge areas security employment, job loss, - employment training Travel certifi- cates progress (Eco-visa) IGAD protocol free movement persons Nationals require visa entry 50 cent member States; nationals issued visa arrival 50 cent member States. SADC 15 member States ratified Protocol Facilitation Movement Persons ( operational). Nationals require visa entry 65 cent member States; nationals issued visa arrival 15 cent member States; provisions member States conclude bilateral agreements visa exemptions. line Protocol Employment Labour SADC, member States encouraged ensure fundamental rights (labour, employment social protection) granted migrant workers families. KAZA Univisa (Zambia, Zimbabwe, park visits Botswana) Source: sources, Economic Commission Africa al., 2012 2016 Africa Regional Integration Index, 2017. Table 12 (contd.) Economic Development Africa Report 2017 122 regional economic communities adopted protocols free movement persons. protocols ambitious, speed ratification protocols uneven: member States ECOWAS EAC ratified protocol, members COMESA ratified protocol. protocols provisions gradual implementation elimination restrictions relating visa regimes, residence establishment. Progress area visa regimes processes. member State ECOWAS grants visa-free entry citizens Community, nationals EAC IGAD travel fellow member countries regional economic communities visas obtain arrival. ECOWAS EAC issue common passports, ECCAS issues travel books cards. Entry regional economic communities facilitated special immigration counters. communities, , visa regimes achieving African Union’ aspiration abolish visa requirements African citizens Africa 2018, stated Agenda 2063 call action. Progress slow implementing rights residence establishment. key factor explaining slow progress implementing establish work, , relates differing national labour market regulations. instance, progress mutual recognition skills certificates, lack thereof discourages cross-border movement labour (Economic Commission Africa al., 2016). Progress EAC mutual recognition professions (accountants architects), ECOWAS, harmonizing educational programmes qualifications. factor relates differences lack access social security benefits. ECOWAS, advanced regional economic community terms implementing protocols relating free movement persons, progress meeting commitments grant migrant workers equal treatment nationals areas security employment, job loss, -employment training (Economic Commission Africa al., 2012). Provisions protocols relating free movement persons apply solely occupations, , calling highly skilled professionals managers specialists. professionals capital invest create jobs host country, contribute public revenue taxes. provisions apply occupations calling lesser skills, countries concerned nationals compete foreign workers. Similarly, migration significant concern countries Tourism transformative inclusive growth 123 high unemployment rates regional economic communities members’ economic development differs greatly. , South Africa requires visa fellow nationals SADC 90 days country. Commitment establish, work reside depends members issue permits accompanying spouses children. ECOWAS, EAC SADC progress front. time enact national laws operationalize regional commitments national level varies widely countries. Owing lack harmonized legislation lengthy processes obtaining visas permits, cross-border movements tend discouraged. countries progress. instance, Kenya reformed national immigration laws facilitate free movement persons EAC. , countries members regional economic community; result, passing laws compatible commitments provisions complex challenging. Progress regional economic communities hindered security concerns. Current large numbers refugees, originating region, result political instability / ongoing border disputes. put strain willingness provide additional rights citizens specific regional economic community. Free movement persons pan-African level framework regulating free movement persons regional economic communities, continental level. , limited opportunities movement regional economic communities, odds Agenda 2063, considers free movement persons priority. Visa requirements intended abolished 2018 African citizens Africa. , African Union Commission received instructions January 2016 issue Africa Union passport Head State July 2016, member States agreed introduce 30-day visa African citizens arrival (African Development Bank African Union, 2016). fill lacuna continental regulation movement persons, African Union Commission prepared draft protocol free movement persons. draft builds advancements regional economic communities respect freedom movement persons incorporates provisions inspired protocols regional economic communities relevant. draft proposes nationals States parties enter territory State party Economic Development Africa Report 2017 124 engage trade goods services investment. categories persons covered agreement include : • Business visitors • Traders investors • Contractual service suppliers • Intra-corporate transferees • Independent service providers technicians • Interns apprentices • categories persons State party grant entry. 2017, draft text discussed context Continental Task Force benefit inputs regional economic communities, distributed member States formal negotiations Continental Free Trade Area Negotiating Forum. 4.4.2 Tourism policy regional pan-African levels , modal approach discussion regional policies support intraregional tourism. approach examine tourism sector addressed policy level regional economic communities ( , sectoral approach) role intraregional tourism. important, comprehensive regional tourism policy needed provide conducive framework environment regional tourism development. Ghimire (2001) argues regional tourism flourish contribute economic diversification structural transformation integrated regional planning processes. mentioned earlier, tourism products strategies traditionally targeted international tourists Africa. surprising national development plans refer intraregional regional tourism. Table 13 tourism mentioned regional development plans strategies constitutive treaties regional economic communities, communities specific tourism development plans strategies. table suggests , regional economic communities Eastern Southern Africa tourism priority regional development plans invest resources elaborating / implementing dedicated tourism plans. contrast, tourism features regional economic communities Central West Africa. IGAD regional economic community explicit --date regional tourism plan. Sustainable Tourism Master Plan IGAD Region covers Tourism transformative inclusive growth 125 broad areas period 2013–2023. key objective plan diversify tourism products markets domestic, regional international tourist markets. Tourism high profile SADC. -year tourism strategy drawn period 1995–1999; 1996, Regional Tourism Organization Southern Africa established coordinate implement strategy. 1998, Community adopted Protocol Development Tourism Southern Africa Development Community. Tourism included Protocol Trade Services SADC adopted 2012 key sectors. Regional Infrastructure Development Master Plan (2012), tourism featured separate sector, focus transfrontier conservation areas. initial protocol aimed facilitate intraregional travel easing visa restrictions establish regional body market SADC region collective tourism destination. Treaty COMESA identifies tourism priority sector, regional economic community commissioned study status tourism development region. study identified challenges bottlenecks tourism development region regional economic community potential attract large numbers tourists generate foreign exchange tourism, members prioritized tourism engine growth poverty reduction. 2012, tourism development forum held agree action plan sustainable tourism development region. agenda item relaxation visa requirements, aimed developing national frameworks facilitate adoption single tourist visa region. Treaty ECCAS envisioned preparation common policy subregional tourism. appendix Treaty Protocol Cooperation Tourism member States ECCAS (1992). EAC designated tourism plan strategy, tourism wildlife management identified priority fourth EAC Development Strategy (2011/12–2015/16) EAC Common Market. objective collectively promote market Community single tourist destination, conserving ensuring sustainable utilization wildlife tourist sites. focuses idea regional brand intends market internationally, including markets Asia. Promoting regional brand opportunities arising intraregional domestic tourism core objectives East Africa Tourism Platform, private sector body East Africa. aimed sensitizing private sector offer affordable tour packages concessionary hotel rates cater domestic tourism (East Africa Tourism Platform, 2016). Economic Development Africa Report 2017 126 Table 13 Tourism regional economic community policy level REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITY IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM IN DEVELOPMENT PLANS OR STRATEGIES TOURISM PLANS OR STRATEGIES AMU development plan Treaty refer tourism CEN-SAD development plan COMESA Tourism programme priority Medium-Term Strategic Plan 2011–2015. progress Treaty identifies tourism priority sector envisages cooperation tourism development. EAC Fourth East African Community Development Strategy (2011/12– 2015/16) identifies tourism wildlife priority , tourism wildlife priority Treaty considers cooperation tourism wildlife management priority ECCAS development plan Protocol Cooperation Tourism member States ECCAS Treaty identifies tourism area cooperation ECOWAS Revised treaty features chapter cooperation tourism IGAD Regional Strategy 2011–2015 identifies tourism priority sector; considers preparation, adoption implementation Sustainable Tourism Master Plan (2013–2023) achievement Sustainable Tourism Master Plan IGAD Region (2013–2023) SADC Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (2005–2020) identifies tourism priority sector Protocol Development Tourism SADC (1998), -year Tourism Development Strategy(1995–1999) Treaty mention tourism specifically, mentions services trade areas cooperation Source: UNCTAD compilation, based sources, databases regional economic communities Economic Commission Africa. short, regional economic communities shared comprehensive vision plan tourism development region. IGAD SADC advanced regard. common feature regional tourism plans development plans goal ease visa requirements facilitate entry region intraregional tourists tourists region, focus . pan-African level, potential regional tourism key stronger African tourism industry recognized Abuja Treaty. Article 65 Treaty states intra-African cooperation tourism strengthened intra-African tourism promoted. Treaty advocates creation environment Tourism transformative inclusive growth 127 encourages capacity-building African skills human resources tourism development. Consistent vision, African Union Partnership Africa’ Development tourism priority area economic transformation, illustrated adoption Ordinary Session Assembly African Union 2004 framework foster sustainable tourism Africa: Tourism Action Plan. Ten-Year Implementation Plan 2014–2023 Agenda 2063 foresees full implementation African tourism strategy establishment African tourism organization. removal restrictions mobility visa key elements pan-African tourism plans strategies. , Ten-Year Implementation Plan 2014–2023 set target double contribution tourism GDP real terms 2014 2023. total contribution tourism GDP increased 6.1 cent 1995 8.3 cent 2015, peak 9.9 cent 2007, difficult achieve target 2023. implies tourism sector grow faster GDP faster years. Regional economic community negotiations liberalizing trade tourism services important consideration facilitation tourism regional economic communities pace extent progress liberalizing trade tourism services regional level. Regional economic communities emphasis primarily liberalizing trade goods — extent movement persons — attention services sector (UNCTAD, 2015a). Progress development protocols cater trade goods total elimination tariffs goods foreseen virtually regional economic communities. addition, UNCTAD (2015a) notes : … opening services trade African regional context gradual. partly complexity services trade negotiations, require agreeing common set rules regulate sector, due intrinsic nature trade services. ensure adequate market access, domestic regulation revised reformed foreign services discriminated . intrinsic complexities, African countries respective subregions preferred gradual approach sectoral modal regulation. regional economic communities instruments — treaties, protocols agreements — relating liberalization services. communities actively engaged negotiating liberalization, including COMESA, EAC, ECOWAS Economic Development Africa Report 2017 128 SADC. , applied regimes services liberal commitments international trade agreements. services protocols COMESA, EAC SADC cover tourism services specifically. ongoing SADC negotiations, requests offers trade tourism services (SADC GFA Consulting Group, 2014). offers cover areas category “tourism travel-related services”, requests areas related categories, vehicle insurance, transport standards, visas permits. points challenges making headway negotiation process. provisions relevant tourism sector cross- cutting form part sectoral protocols, negotiation process dependent progress negotiations sectoral protocols. Regional trade services negotiations follow similar framework multilateral negotiations, , General Agreement Trade Services. implies regional protocols compatible Agreement, commitments legally binding obligations multilateral level. , 43 African countries part World Trade Organization , Madagascar Mozambique, sectoral commitments tourism travel services. liberalized service category . tourism occupations, , tourism travel services cover narrow range services relevant tourism industry. include subcategories hotels restaurants (including catering), travel agencies tour operator services, tourist guide services . , services regarded integral tourism sector included tourism services (World Trade Organization, 1998). Examples recreational, cultural sporting services, car rentals (classified transport services) computer reservations systems (classified business services). Efforts liberalize tourism sector limited hampered efforts negotiate, lack thereof, sectors. decision 17 December 2011 World Trade Organization, Preferential Treatment Services Services Suppliers Developed Countries (WT//847), commonly developed countries services waiver, relevant context. waiver initially granted 15 years, tenth Ministerial Conference Organization, held Nairobi 2015, extended 2030. preference offers presented constitute significant widely acclaimed development provide opportunities developed countries sectors interest (Rodríguez Mendoza al., 2016). preferences offered Mode 4, line Hong Kong Ministerial Declaration (2005)43 instructing members World Trade Organization “… give priority 43. Adopted sixth Ministerial Conference World Trade Organization Hong Kong, China. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 129 sectors modes supply export interest developed countries, regard movement service providers Mode 4”. Rodríguez Mendoza al. (2016) find small number preferences offered tourism. Tourism export potentials related Mode 4 (tour guides business visitors) Mode 3 (restaurants, hotels travel agencies) desired additional space set preferences offered. , authors recognize main mode supply tourism – Mode 2 – encounters difficult obstacles. observations chapter 3, gender dimension considered regard services trade. Coste Nihel Brenton al. (2013) argue trade services offers opportunities women Africa; , liberalization services trade increase employment income opportunities women. considerable number women employed tradable services sectors tourism (hotels restaurants), wholesale retail trade, information technology services, trade significant gender-related impacts. , Coste Nihel maintain “ outcomes achieved women depend economic, social political conditions shape ability participate activities”. Initiatives aimed identifying addressing gender-based constraints major impact poverty alleviation (UNCTAD Enhanced Integrated Framework, 2014). 4.4.3 Currency convertibility regional economic communities strive deepen integration monetary unions, implies currencies fellow member States characterized fixed exchange rates convertibility. COMESA, ECOWAS, SADC EAC produced blueprints establishing monetary unions (UNCTAD, 2014e); regional economic communities shared currency. West African Economic Monetary Union West African CFA franc,44 pegged euro interchangeable Central African CFA franc Central African Economic Monetary Community. , Lesotho, Namibia Swaziland pegged par South African rand, implies align monetary policy South Africa. continental level, Abuja Treaty envisaged establishment African monetary union, eventually lead creation single currency. Constitutive Act African Union creation African Central Bank, purpose 44 Currency African Financial Community. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 130 build common monetary policy single African currency accelerate economic integration. regional economic communities pursue avenue deepening integration monetary unions, currency convertibility imply tourism European experience insightful regard, Europe long history convertible currencies introducing single currency. experience suggests introduction single currency boosted tourism eurozone (Gil‐Pareja al., 2007) (Ledesma Rodríguez al., 2012). argued absence currency convertibility, burden exchanging currency transaction cost tourists similar dealing visa requirements. lack currency convertibility currency restrictions impact financing tourism development, international investors face higher costs currency restrictions. Nkuepo (2012) states Africa’ multiple -convertible currencies important barrier trade Africa. section examines impact currency restrictions inbound tourism Africa determine monetary integration impact tourism development region continent. analysis aims provide indication impact deeper integration monetary unions tourism. , , suggest countries remove currency restrictions liberalize capital accounts sake tourism, policies depend range variables. Currency restrictions Currency restrictions introduced prevent capital flight support exchange rates. common instrument economies managed exchange rates market forces imply supply demand local currency, rates fall capital flows restrictions. Currency restrictions typically involve banning limiting domestic citizens holding foreign currency, setting exchange rates differently market rates, banning currency exchange limiting currency exchange retailers approved Government, banning limiting foreign currency country limiting amount money imported exported. International Monetary Fund defines measures currency restrictions context articles agreement, task Fund monitoring reporting multiple currency practices.45 measures subsumed currency 45 results reported Annual Report Exchange Arrangements Exchange - strictions database. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 131 restrictions, instance, multiple exchange rates significant deviations market rates. Data currency restrictions sample 52 African countries period 2005–2015. Twenty- countries restrictions years, 10 restrictions years, 6 restrictions 1 6 years, 7 restrictions 7 10 years (table 14). countries restrictions years, restrictions introduced Burundi (2006), Gabon (2009), Ghana (2012), Malawi (2006), Mauritania (2015), Sierra Leone (2009) Swaziland (2007). Restrictions abolished Botswana (2007), Egypt (2006), Malawi (2015), Mauritania (2006), Mozambique (2011), Nigeria (2015) Sudan (2007). Observing response tourism revenues currency restrictions local currency scarce costly, expected expenditures inbound tourism suffer, possibly visitors stay . , tourist expenditures necessarily respond equally strongly currency restrictions. , international passenger transport expenditures purchased country origin paid foreign currency. Currency restrictions influence transaction, require exchanging money foreign local currency. contrast, -country travel expenditures (international tourism receipts) sensitive currency restrictions, spending category requires local currency. , international tourism receipts observe effect currency restrictions growth inbound tourism expenditures. Figure 22 shows growth inbound tourism expenditures subsamples countries currency restrictions period 2005–2015, currency restrictions years years period. data comparable countries, converted annual growth data. breakdown country- year observations : total expenditures tourism export revenues (962), international tourism receipts (984) international passenger transport expenditures (855). data suggest period 2005–2015, growth international tourism receipts highest African countries currency restrictions, countries currency restrictions 1 6 years, countries currency restriction 7 10 years, lowest countries currency restrictions 11 years. pattern expenditures international passenger transport, supports assertion currency restrictions influence Economic Development Africa Report 2017 132 purchase international travel. combined response – response currency restrictions total inbound expenditures (tourism export revenues) – suggests linear relationship currency restrictions total inbound tourism expenditures. reason, international tourism receipts analysis. factor considered currency restrictions occur countries political instability violence. measured , instance, political stability absence violence terrorism index, measures perceptions likelihood political instability / politically motivated violence, including terrorism. Higher values perceptions stability absence violence terrorism. sample 52 African countries, score average higher countries currency restrictions total sample countries currency restrictions. appears currency restrictions common likelihood political instability violence. Table 14 Currency restrictions, 2005–2015 RESTRICTIONS IN ALL 11 YEARS RESTRICTIONS IN 1–6 YEARS RESTRICTIONS IN 7–10 YEARS NO RESTRICTIONS Angola Democratic Republic Congo Eritrea Ethiopia Guinea Somalia South Sudan Tunisia Zambia Zimbabwe Egypt Botswana Mauritania Seychelles Ghana Mozambique Gabon Sierra Leone Malawi Sudan Swaziland Nigeria Burundi Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, ôte ’Ivoire, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome Principe, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, United Republic Tanzania Source: International Monetary Fund, 2015. Note: Restrictions refer dealings central banks, concern individuals. Restrictions include measures maintain exchange rate market rate implement multiple exchange rates. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 133 observations indicative relationship currency restrictions international tourism receipts, strength causality relationship established regression analysis, discussed subsection. Analysing impact currency restrictions inbound tourism Ideally, analysis impact currency restrictions inbound tourism study growth inbound tourism expenditures surrounding introduction abolishment currency restrictions. events rare statistically analysed meaningful period 2005–2015 Africa, alternative approach applied. , analysis considers effects presence absence currency restrictions, transition currency restriction policies. Selecting country-year observations growth rates international tourism receipts data currency restrictions Figure 22 Average annual growth inbound tourism African countries, 2005–2015 (Percentage) -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Total inbound expenditures (tourism export revenues) International tourism receipts International passenger transport expenditures currency restrictions year Currency restrictions 1-6 years Currency restrictions 7-10 years Currency restrictions years Source: UNCTAD calculations, based data UNWTO, 2017. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 134 reduces number observations 388. Adding control variables results sample 239 observations 33 African countries (table 15). Based data, panel data models form estimated: Eit = + ß1∙Cit + ß2∙Xit + Tt + ε (1) international tourism receipts year country , intercept, binary variable capturing currency restrictions Xit control variables. Currency restrictions year regressed relative increase expenditures year -1 year , observe effect restrictions, . appears specification, effects longer lags . Time-fixed effects Tt included, country-fixed effects, due multicollinearity concerns. 46 Standard errors (ε) clustered country increase efficiency estimate. ß1 effect currency restrictions inbound tourism expenditures proxies inbound tourism. determinants covariates tourist spending accounted . country’ development level (captured real GDP capita income levels) annual GDP capita income growth ( business cycle indicator). exchange rate local currency dollars, tourist spending local currency attractive terms dollars. fourth total trade ( sum export imports, ratio GDP). tourist spending includes spending related business trips, trade tourist spending. control variable difference capital account balance current account balance (errors omissions). captures extent international payments trade investment flows, foreign tourist expenditures, subject measurement error. significance statistical balancing item; commonly proxy unobserved cross-border financial flows, capital flight. context report, local money move undetected border, implies effectiveness currency controls. Currency unions African Financial Community offer full currency convertibility. binary variable indicating membership African Financial Community currency zone added model. Lastly, political stability absence violence terrorism indicator added peace stability. 46 binary currency restrictions variable included varies time country additional country-fixed effects causing significant multicollinearity, evident large variance inflation factors. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 135 results regression analysis presented table 15. univariate model included column 1. Control variables added consecutively columns 2–5. coefficient currency restrictions negative , trade exchange rates controlled, highly significant. control variables, real income growth exchange rate robustly growth inbound tourism expenditures: dollar obtains local currency units, stimulates growth inbound tourism expenditures. control variables significant. UNCTAD findings show average African economy 2005–2015, introduction currency restrictions with10 cent growth international tourism receipts. correlation, , simply interpreted evidence causal relation. unobserved variable influence currency restrictions international tourism receipts, undermining causal interpretations. address , analysis data inbound tourism expenditures international passenger transport items, purchased country origin paid foreign currency. Currency restrictions influence spending category. , difference international tourism receipts inbound tourism expenditures international passenger transport alternative dependent variable. specification unobserved variable currency restrictions dependent variable. results ( shown) difference growth rates international tourism receipts inbound tourism expenditures international passenger transport responds strongly currency restrictions, controlling exchange rate effect, strong. coefficient negative highly significant. , analysis evidence currency restrictions growth international tourism receipts. implications analysis , important note limitations analysis. limitation relates choice dependent variable: international tourism receipts. analysis focuses spending category sensitive currency restrictions, increases probability stronger effect currency restrictions effect inbound tourism. , 10 cent effect upper bound effect total spending. , results interpreted indication impact deeper integration monetary unions tourism. suggest countries remove currency restrictions liberalize capital accounts sake tourism. policies broader implications depend Economic Development Africa Report 2017 136 range variables. fact, developments, postponing introduction Eco West African Monetary Zone 2020 introducing renewed currency restrictions, suggest removing currency restrictions desirable policy option international commodity markets deteriorate. Greater lasting currency convertibility requires stable sources foreign financing. coincidence currency restrictions common African economies highly commodity-dependent. 4.4.4 Air transport Air connectivity crucial tourism development, Africa tourist destination. 2015, (54 cent) overnight visitors worldwide reached destination air, trend points gradual increase share Table 15 Impact currency restrictions international tourism receipts VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLE: ANNUAL GROWTH OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM RECEIPTS (PER CENT) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Currency restrictions (0/1) -2.08 -6.04 -10.22a -11.15a -10.16a (3.84) (4.10) (3.52) (3.39) (3.60) Real GDP capita (dollars, purchasing power parity-based) -0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) Real GDP capita growth (percentage) 1.77a 2.19a 2.22a 2.32a (0.43) (0.54) (0.52) (0.53) Exchange rate (local currency units relative dollar) -0.00a -0.00a -0.00a (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) Trade (imports + exports, percentage GDP) -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Errors omissions (percentage GDP) 0.08 0.10 0.11 (0.11) (0.12) (0.12) Political stability absence violence terrorism (index) -1.70 -1.72 (1.99) (2.04) CFA membership (0/1) 3.66 (4.24) Constant -14.49b -16.38c -4.99 -7.62 -10.41 (5.92) (8.70) (8.12) (7.74) (8.97) Number observations 388 383 239 239 239 Number countries 45 45 33 33 33 Adjusted -squared (coefficient determination) 0.066 0.102 0.143 0.144 0.147 Note: Robust standard errors parentheses; year-fixed effects included reported. Probability 0.01. Probability 0.05. Probability 0.1. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 137 air transport (UNWTO, 2016a ). Africa, , air connectivity relevant, large distances poor road transportation increase tourism’ dependence air transportation. comparison, ground transport denser quality developed countries. , relevance air transport tourism sector; catalyst socioeconomic development integration Africa. relevance, air connectivity major constraints growth tourism Africa. , air service Africa limited, airlines dominating market. continent comprises 15 cent world’ population, served 4 cent world’ scheduled air service seats (SH , 2010). gaps air service coverage acute intra-African connectivity, West Central Africa reporting infrequent irregular schedules, multiple- stop itineraries (Christie al., 2014). , number long-haul flights week correlates performance countries, proximity regional hub, Johannesburg Nairobi, important factor air service neighbouring destinations. , air service Africa expensive. air transport sector study SH (2010), air fares Africa double comparable distance air fares domestic United States market, 50 cent higher counterpart Latin America pay. study, high fares predominantly result power monopolies duopolies set artificially high market rates, factors higher business risks operating Africa, higher airport taxes charges, diseconomies scale due small market sizes ineffective management airlines airports contribute high fares. reduction air fares availability flights Africa , , achieved emergence -cost carriers charters. , cost flight availability remain major constraints scheduled air service. , safety security continue major concerns. International Air Transport Association, airline accident rate Africa (1:471,000) rest world (Brogden, 2009). gap closing, African airlines safest world, -accident rate higher global average (UNWTO al., 2015). African Union (African Union, 2016), 42 African States -compliant Abuja aviation safety targets Africa.47 Poor safety security regimes high cost, result expensive insurance premiums inability develop code sharing business arrangements; , discourage potentially high-yield international customers private-sector investors (Schlumberger, 2010). 47 www.icao.int/safety/afiplan/Documents/AFCAC%20DP%20%20SC%2012.pdf. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 138 Irregular infrequent routing airlines, high costs concerns safety security hamper competitiveness destinations. damaging effects lack air connectivity opportunities air transport offers regional integration long recognized African Governments, opening skies lengthy process. Air services African States predominantly regulated basis restrictive bilateral agreements. Closer cooperation African airline companies sought Yamoussoukro Declaration (1988), primary purpose create conducive environment development intra-African international air services. , Declaration envisaged gradual elimination traffic rights, decade , Yamoussoukro Decision reached 1999, policy focus shifted liberalizing access intra-African air service markets (Schlumberger, 2010). Decision commits 44 signatory countries deregulating air services opening regional air markets transnational competition Africa. addition, Decision multilateral exchange freedom air traffic rights, , , foreign airlines fly country, pick passengers country. Decision endorsed Heads States Governments 2000 fully binding 2002, implementation Agreement slow. Schlumberger (2010) states : “ reasons applying Yamoussoukro Decision range -implementation elements decision, , establishing competition rules, dispute settlement mechanism, operational monitoring body, simply ignoring continuing agree traditional restrictive bilaterals…”. Schlumberger argues implementation Decision realities. hand, progress implementation public policy pan-African level, key policy elements developed. hand, countries opened applying Decision bilateral level. Regional economic communities key role implementing Yamoussoukro Decision. Regional subregional groupings encouraged pursue intensify efforts implement Decision regional level, underlying idea applied Decision, start agree liberalizing air traffic . , World Air Transport conference challenges opportunities liberalization, held Montreal, Canada 2003, African States noted reference competition regulation, core element Decision, implementation Decision carried regional economic groupings. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 139 Schlumberger (2010) argues progress regional level uneven: Arab States Northern Africa begun liberalizing air services , Morocco, Yamoussoukro State Party, active nation respect liberalizing extending air services. Western Africa, ECOWAS significant steps liberalizing air services, smaller West African Economic Monetary Union principles Decision. Central Africa, Central African Economic Monetary Community implemented legislative regulatory elements comply provisions Yamoussoukro Decision. Southern East Africa, progress achieved COMESA. Establishing joint competition authority obstacle full implementation. EAC revised bilaterals conform Decision, implementation pending. SADC, progress slower owing concerns South African Airways eliminate competition. , encouraging South Africa’ domestic market prospered full competition established. importance air transport air connectivity highlighted commemoration fiftieth anniversary Organization African Unity African Union 2013, African leaders decided give stronger ambitious impetus continent’ socioeconomic development integration agenda. African Union Agenda 2063, drawn time, included projects great potential fostering development. projects “[] creation single African air transport market, account special role importance air transport achieving goals Agenda speeding socioeconomic development integration Africa, () free movement people African passport” (African Union, 2016). 2014, African Union Executive Council adopted decision EX.CL/Dec.821 (XXV), implementation Yamoussoukro Decision foundation establishment single African air transport market. 2015, Heads States Governments adopted Declaration Establishment Single African Air Transport Market, ensures establishment African airlines 2017 facilitates air connectivity implementation Yamoussoukro Decision. African Union (2016) reports 13 member States signed Solemn Commitment. benefits Yamoussoukro Decision reaped (UNWTO al., 2015; African Development Bank, 2015). study commissioned International Air Transport Association estimate increase air traffic 48 Algeria, Angola, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tuni- sia Uganda. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 140 benefits accrue 12 African countries48 implemented Yamoussoukro Decision, total air traffic flow increase 81 cent, 5 million passengers year. additional services generated liberalization 12 markets provide 155,000 jobs aviation, tourism wider economy, $1.3 billion GDP (UNWTO al., 2015). analysis suggests significant potential benefits achieved restrictions establishing air routes apply. benefits add expanding African air transport market. International Air Transport Association’ 20-year forecast air passenger growth 2014 2034, passenger numbers grow 4.7 cent year , Africa (UNWTO al., 2015). increase due factors related price connectivity rising standards living, leading expanding middle class strong population growth. reap benefits, Governments tackle challenges. African Union (2016) suggests measures: , Governments political open air transport markets. Solemn Commitment African Union Member States Implementation Yamoussoukro Decision Establishment Single African Air Transport Market 2017, States required inform formally liberalization respective air transport markets action remove restrictions bilateral air services agreements contrary Yamoussoukro Decision. , support States subscribe Commitment mobilized. , member States comply Safety Security Standards Recommended Practices International Civil Aviation Organization. Notable success stories, Ethiopian Airlines Sal Airport Cabo Verde, demonstrate Africa compete airlines airports world. , regional economic communities building blocks African integration, African Union support dialogue communities Executive Agency Yamoussoukro Decision draft memorandum cooperation full implementation Decision management single African air transport market. Fourth, regulatory texts Yamoussoukro Decision compiled, published disseminated. Regulations required competition rules; consumer protection; dispute-settlement mechanism; powers, functions operations Executive Agency. Finally, aviation large carbon footprint challenges environmental climate change-related objectives. dilemma tourism sector, sector depends country’ air connectivity natural resources. study United Tourism transformative inclusive growth 141 Nations Environment Programme (2011) warns “ tourism sector’ growing consumption energy, travel accommodation, dependence fossil fuels important implications global GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions climate change future business growth.” agency estimates tourism generates 5 cent total greenhouse gas emissions, primarily tourist transport (75 cent) accommodation (21 cent). , intraregional tourists comparatively carbon footprint tourists travelling region, owing shorter distances. provide incentive focus attracting intraregional tourists. 4.5 Conclusions chapter discussed intraregional tourism develop deepening regional integration. intraregional tourism growing offers opportunities economic export diversification potential intraregional tourism recognized regional economic community national levels. progress implementing free movement persons opening skies facilitate access tourism destinations destinations competitive. Data tourism flows Africa show continental tourism characterized large volumes tourists high . Continental tourism increased steadily 2010 2013, expected continue growing. , 4 10 international tourists Africa originate continent. significant amount international tourism takes place region continent, reflecting similar global trends. Volumes intraregional tourist arrivals share total international tourist arrivals, total international tourist arrivals continent, vary greatly regional economic communities. SADC, extensive experience intraregional tourism distant traditional tourist source markets, highest share intraregional tourist arrivals total international tourist arrivals. arrivals account international tourist arrivals Africa AMU, represent small share international tourist arrivals. reflects fact AMU prime destination European travellers. Intraregional tourism EAC, COMESA, ECOWAS rise. challenging characterize African tourist owing data limitations regard regional arrivals purpose travel. , inferences bilateral Economic Development Africa Report 2017 142 flows national reports . Urban tourism, shopping, increasing travel motivation. Business travellers comprise formal informal business tourists. regard , cross-border traders significant subcategory Africa, debate cross-border traders counted tourists. Tourist arrivals include short-term seasonal migrants, high number owing migration flows Africa. Similarly, long- term migrants visiting friends relatives major tourist category. distinction categories blurred, trip motivated purposes, accuracy recording data challenge. important understand nature regional tourists, large increasing numbers, expenditure patterns demand, compared tourists Africa. argued tourism Africa targets tourists . growth continental, intraregional domestic tourism, tourism product tourism strategies adjusted cater groups. tourism activity Africa takes place domestically, similarly global patterns, continental intraregional tourism essential terms international trade. Continental intraregional tourism offer opportunity strengthen local linkages reduce leakage, continental intraregional tourists similar tastes greater demand local products tourists Africa. seize opportunities, potential African tourism recognized regional economic community level, tourism development planned comprehensively. national development plans identify tourism priority sector, importance tourism regional development plans highlighted COMESA, EAC, IGAD SADC. exception EAC, regional economic communities developed, process developing, regional tourism plan. , tourism emphasis Eastern Southern Africa Central Western Africa. free movement persons central tourism development, facilitates entry destination enables people seek employment establish business linked tourism. African regional economic communities IGAD CEN-SAD protocol free movement persons, ratification implementation rates vary greatly. ECOWAS EAC advanced. , progress achieved regard entry removal visa requirements. rights work establish fellow member States regional economic communities encounter multiple hurdles. Integration led liberalization core tourism professions. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 143 Easing eliminating visa requirements major priority plans regional economic communities pan-African development. progress , goal enabling African nationals enter African nations visa-free 2018 remains major challenge. Seychelles notable exception. Visa openness correlates share travel tourism GDP international tourist arrivals. suggests visa openness dimension destination’ competitiveness, potential stimulating tourism development recognized. Seychelles’ results show visa openness boost tourism development, estimates Rwanda, , point direction. Regional economic communities progress negotiating trade services trade tourism services , practice, trade liberalized. Continental Free Trade Area, trade services negotiations establishment protocol free movement persons initial stages. hampers opportunities tourism grow intraregional regional levels fuller role played inclusive growth. chapter analysed impact currency restrictions inbound tourism Africa. regional economic communities pursue path deepening integration move monetary unions, chapter discussed elimination currency restrictions affect inbound tourism. results analysis suggest introduction currency restrictions 2005–2015 10 cent growth international tourism receipts. , capital controls exchange rate policies influenced factors development tourism. final section chapter discussed air connectivity relevance tourism. Air transport key tourism development, tourists reach destination air, intra-African air connectivity limited costly, Central Western Africa. African States encouraged implement Yamoussoukro Decision deregulate air services open regional air markets transnational competition Africa, establish single African air transport market. importantly, , steps ensure safety security standards, -accident rate Africa higher global average. , African airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, safest world. conclude, development tourism Africa benefit progress regional integration. , transaction costs reaching entering destination, travelling , reduced improving air transport facilitating free movement persons currency convertibility. , tourism policies place intraregional continental tourism comprehensive planning tap growing potential African tourism. CHAPTER 5 Tourism, peace development Africa United Nations Member States formally recognized importance peace advancing development, Goal 16 Sustainable Development Goals, relates promotion peace, justice strong institutions, key conditions achieving development goals. addition, Nairobi Maafikiano adopted fourteenth session United Nations Conference Trade Development (2016) aims give due account cross-cutting issues good governance levels, freedom, peace security respect human rights (UNCTAD, 2016b, article 14 ()). chapter builds existing literature quantitatively investigate relationship peace, stability tourism Africa, highlights central messages analysis conducted. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 147 5.1 Tourism driver peace generally established peace leads development tourism, mixed evidence tourism contributes peace. Tourism thought vital force world peace, bridges cultural differences people; weakens prejudices, reduces conflicts tensions challenging negative stereotypes; leads improved intercultural attitudes; ultimately contributes world peace (Amir, 1969; Amir Garti, 1977; Nyaupane al., 2008; Pratt Liu, 2016). , studies relationship peace tourism descriptive nature, efforts devoted causality analysis (Pratt Liu, 2016). led continuing debate researchers, tourism practitioners policymakers relationship peace development tourism. Tourism played significant role driver peace contexts. , regard Democratic People’ Republic Korea Republic Korea, focus research related peace tourism, tourism “ viable opening path peace” (Crompton Kim, 1990). Tourism potential reduce risks conflict enhance peace raising stakes regard employment creation social economic development. regard, times unrest, rallying tourism stakeholders political beliefs common result political influence, shown protection tourism sector Kenya (Lagat al., 2014). Concerned impact political unrest election periods tourism sector, industry stakeholders Kenya efforts promote peace elections. efforts consolidated Election Period Operating Procedures programme executed jointly Ministry East African Affairs, Commerce Tourism, Kenya Police Service, Kenya Wildlife Service private-sector association Kenya Tourism Federation (Kenya Tourism Federation, 2010). programme communications system aims ensure tourists cross zones unrest resulted safeguarding large contributions tourism sector country’ economy. , benefits tourism automatic; tourism generate conflict. , contested heritage, difficult tourism driver peace (Gelbman, 2010; Gelbman Maoz, 2012). addition, tourism divisions, contentions scarce resources lead increased intercommunity rivalry (Pratt Liu, 2016). Cyprus, , evidence tourism tool conflict, expropriation exclusion (Scott, 2012). Analysis Economic Development Africa Report 2017 148 post-conflict situations Croatia, Rwanda Sri Lanka outlined motivating inhibiting factors influencing engagement private sector peacebuilding. private sector role play regard. circumstances, private sector stakeholders engage development tourism basis coping harm, basis actively engaging conflict transforming peacebuilding activities (Alluri, 2009; Joras al., 2009). 5.2 Measuring peacefulness Africa Global Peace Index Institute Economics Peace measures global peace broad themes, level safety security society, extent domestic international conflict degree militarization. Index, factors internal, levels violence crime country, external, military expenditure war. assertion crime rates, minimal incidences terrorist acts violent demonstrations, harmonious relations neighbouring countries, stable political scene small proportion population internally displaced refugee status equated peacefulness, measured 22 indicators.49 Countries considered peaceful index scores. methodology, shown figure 23, 2016, Africa’ average Global Peace Index score 2.3, risen 2016 compared 2009. , masks wide variations country performance. comparison, 2016, average score 2.1 South America, 1.9 Asia Pacific, 1.7 North America 1.6 Europe, average score Africa. range scores widened 2009, Europe considered peaceful Africa South America peaceful. regard subregions Africa, 2016, average, Northern Africa considered peaceful Southern Africa, peaceful. Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index World Bank measures perceptions likelihood political instability events, ranging terrorist acts revolutions. indicator (estimates) ranges approximately -2.5 (weak) 2.5 (strong). shown figure 24, countries Africa fall weak range scores. lowest scores States conflict post-conflict situations, Somalia, South Sudan Libya. strongest performers - established democracies, Botswana, Mauritius Namibia. 49 Indicators ranked 1 5. Individual indicators weighted expert panel’ judgment importance. scores tabulated weighted - indices, internal peace, weighted 60 cent country’ final score, external peace, 40 cent. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 149 5.3 Political unrest conflict significantly harm tourism sector economic impact political instability significant long lasting, presenting negative image tourist destination, instability short duration. reporting conflict political instability impact investment marketing decisions tour operators, resulting scaling operations result bookings, . vicious circle develop political unrest leads demand, declining private investment investors lose confidence falling public investment security concerns funds reprioritized. negatively impact country tourism destination reduce appeal tourists. Tourism receipts decline steeply tourist numbers nature tourist profiles . , wealthier, security-sensitive tourists supplanted price-conscious, risk- tourists. , UNCTAD calculations based data UNWTO (2016a) show Egypt, bomb attacks Sharm El Sheikh 2005 bomb attacks Dahab Figure 23 Africa: Global Peace Index region, 2009 2016 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Africa South America Asia Paci� North America Europe 2009 2016 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based Institute Economics Peace, 2017, World Bank, 2017. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 150 Figure 24 Africa: Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index, 2015 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 Somalia South Sudan Libya Democratic Republic Congo Sudan Central African Republic Nigeria Burundi Mali Ethiopia Egypt Kenya Algeria Cameroon Chad Niger Eritrea Tunisia Uganda ôte ’Ivoire Liberia Africa Mauritania Burkina Faso Angola Zimbabwe Mozambique Congo Swaziland United Republic Tanzania Djibouti Guinea Guinea-Bissau Madagascar Morocco Equatorial Guinea South Africa Togo Senegal Lesotho Sierra Leone Rwanda Malawi Benin Gambia Ghana Gabon Zambia Namibia Mauritius Botswana 1.50 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based World Bank, 2017. Note: countries included due lack data: Cabo Verde, Comoros, Sao Tome Principe, Seychelles. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 151 2006, resulted 8 cent fall foreign tourism receipts 2006 (BBC News, 2011). Similarly, political instability Tunisia, total tourism receipts 2009– 2011 declined 27 cent average, $3.5 billion 2009 $2.5 billion 2011, implying decline tourist expenditure. number tourists United Kingdom Tunisia fell 423,000 2010 360,000 2011, year Arab Spring; amount spent fell $294 million 2010 $236 million 2014 (BBC News, 2015). Egypt, 9.5 million visitors 2013, sharp drop record 14.7 million 2010 (BBC News, 2014b; UNWTO, 2016a). Domestic tourism decline times political turbulence, citizens tend save disposable income anticipation uncertain economic times . , UNCTAD calculations based data UNWTO (2016a) Nigeria, inception Boko Haram insurgency, total domestic travel tourism spending fell 35 cent 2009 compared spending 2008. Countries affected political unrest tend experience decline number international tourist arrivals tourism receipts. social economic consequences political turmoil lack peace significant effects growth tourism. 5.4 Effects tourism peace Africa section analyses relationship peace tourism Africa panel data models. Global Peace Index Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index serve proxies peace. indicators measure development tourism, international tourist arrivals international tourism receipts. Data analysed period 2002–2014, complete consecutive time series. empirically examine development tourism lead higher level peacefulness Africa, specification tested: Yit= ß0 + ß1 Xit + ß2 Xit regiondummy + ß3 Xit conflict intensitydummy + δ+ λ+ θZt + Uit (2) Yit dependent variable GPIit PSAVTit, GPI Global Peace Index PSAVT Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index. Xit independent variable interest T_Arrit (international tourist arrivals) T_Revit (tourism export revenues). specifications independent dependent variables, specifications tested. Global Peace Index proxy peace (dependent variable),50 Zt set control 50 GPI proxy peace (dependent variable), log-log model interpret regression coefficients, represent elasticity. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 152 variables include GDP capita, FDI urban population percentage total population. ß0 constant term shows common effects accounted independent variable. ß1 elasticity bilateral relationship peace international tourist arrivals. δ unobserved individual effects countries. λ unobserved individual effects years. Uit error term. model reflect subregional differences, UNCTAD subregional classification African countries (Eastern, Western, Middle, Southern Northern) . independent variable interest tourism interacted51 dummy variables country located considered regions. ß2 additional effect tourism peace country located Eastern, Western, Middle Southern Africa, compared effect located Northern Africa ( variable excluded model). addition, econometric analysis takes consideration measure intensity conflicts continent, year country faced armed conflict civil war established peace.52 tourism variable interacted dummy variables reflect intensity conflict country. ß3 additional effect tourism peace country facing armed conflict civil war, compared effect benefiting absence conflict ( variable excluded model). literature relationship peace tourism suggests bidirectional causal relationship variables. address endogeneity problem, instrumental variable (-stage squares) approach , findings tourist arrivals revenues increase, peace improves.53 negative elasticity positive relationship peace tourism. findings show potential improvement level peace result improvement tourism performance pronounced Africa global 51 Interaction variables introduce additional level regression analysis allowing researchers explore synergistic effects combined predictors. Adding interaction terms regres- sion model greatly expand understanding relationships variables model hypotheses tested. 52 Data variable Uppsala Conflict Data Programme International Peace - search Institute, Oslo, 2016. 53 Specifically, tourist arrivals increase 1 cent, peace improves -0.00111 cent (-0.111/100). results instrumental variable regression model examine causal direction peace development tourism box 6, shows peace increases 1 cent, tourism revenues improve 0.54 cent (model 8). - fore, impact peace tourism greater impact tourism peace. models tested, proxies indicators peace tourism , original analysis (table 16). Tourism transformative inclusive growth 153 context. global context, study relationship peace tourism 111 countries 2008–2012 1 cent increase tourist arrivals led 0.031 cent improvement peace (Pratt Liu, 2016). potential explanation finding level peacefulness Africa, higher level peacefulness gained, partially improvement tourism. Table 16 shows results instrumental variable regression specifications, Global Peace Index Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index proxies dependent variable peace, international tourist arrivals (T_Arr) proxy independent variable interest tourism. set control variables consideration, set interaction variables tourist arrivals dummy variables subregional classification African countries tourist arrivals dummy variables reflect intensity conflict.54 Models 1 2 show additional positive effect tourist arrivals peace country Eastern Western Africa compared Northern Africa ( variable excluded model). , country located Middle Africa, impact tourist arrivals peace important country Northern Africa. results interpreted : effect tourist arrivals peace pronounced Eastern Western Africa ( lesser extent Middle Africa) Northern Africa; Southern Africa, evidence additional significant effect tourist arrivals peace. regard effect intensity conflict relationship peace tourism, model 2 shows effect tourist arrivals peace ( Global Peace Index, measure negative peace,55 proxy) pronounced countries facing armed conflict civil war, compared countries established peace ( variable excluded model). results confirm expectation development tourism starts significant positive effect peace countries move armed conflict civil war peaceful environment. Models 1 2 show GDP capita negatively peace (positively Global Peace Index). , effect FDI peace 54 logarithmic transformation applied variables. , regression coefficients repre- semi-elasticity. 55 Negative peace defined absence war, conflict / violence; positive peace active notion, perceived regard social justice ( box 6). Economic Development Africa Report 2017 154 significant. addition, subregional differences countries, conflict intensity, affect relationship peace ( Global Peace Index proxy) development tourism ( tourism export revenues proxy). robustness checks, political stability absence violence terrorism measure peace. Models 3 4 show GDP capita urban population rates positively peace. , FDI negatively peace, partly explained potential impact Table 16 Instrumental variable (-stage squares) regression findings: Peace beneficiary tourism PEACE AS DEPENDENT VARIABLE GLOBAL PEACE INDEX POLITICAL STABILITY AND ABSENCE OF VIOLENCE AND TERRORISM INDEX Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 T_Arr (international tourist arrivals) -0.022 -0.005 -0.111*** -0.100*** (-1.61) (-0.47) (-3.86) (-3.77) T_Arr easterndummy -0.032*** -0.021*** 0.141*** 0.104*** (-5.53) (-3.93) (7.04) (5.46) T_Arr westerndummy -0.020*** -0.009 0.106*** 0.070*** (-3.29) (-1.60) (4.96) (3.47) T_Arr middledummy 0.005 0.020*** -0.036 -0.054** (0.63) (2.72) (-1.23) (-2.00) T_Arr southerndummy -0.002 0.006 0.139*** 0.088*** (-0.46) (1.11) (6.27) (4.17) T_Arr armed conflictdummy 0.023*** -0.126*** (6.23) (7.50) T_Arr civil wardummy 0.038*** -0.217*** (4.95) (-5.26) Gross domestic product -0.096*** -0.084*** 0.321*** 0.36*** (-4.88) (-4.85) (5.44) (6.61) Foreign direct investment 0.002 0.000 -0.033** -0.015 (-0.70) (0.05) (-2.42) (-1.23) Urban population 0.563*** 0.278** (4.58) (2.37) Constant 1.59 1.31 -4.42 -3.46 (13.30) (11.58) (13.00) (-10.42) R2 0.3099 0.4659 0.3696 0.4672 Number observations 186 186 413 413 Notes: Values parentheses represent -test statistics, *, ** *** 10, 5 1 cent significance level, . logarithmic transformation applied variables. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 155 multinational enterprises FDI inflows African countries concerned extraction natural resources. source internal conflict country control resources contested (Collier, 2007, 2010). regard effect subregional differences, models 3 4 show effect tourist arrivals peace pronounced Eastern, Western Southern Africa Northern Africa ( variable excluded model). , countries Middle Africa, impact tourist arrivals peace important countries Northern Africa. results support obtained Global Peace Index proxy. regard effect intensity conflict relationship peace tourism, model 4 shows effect tourist arrivals peace ( Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index proxy) pronounced countries facing armed conflict civil war, compared countries established peace ( variable excluded model). results support obtained Global Peace Index proxy. tourism literature shows sector considered beneficiary peace causality peace tourism directions. , instrumental variable regression conducted examine impact peace tourism (box 6). findings impact peace tourism greater impact tourism peace. results confirm bidirectional causal relationship peace tourism. 5.5 Tourism sustain peace conflict 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development calls countries foster peaceful, inclusive societies asserts sustainable development peace peace sustainable development. highlights development-reversing effects conflict. studies attempted explain, theoretical point view, tourism contribute peace. , suggested contribution contact groups people facilitated tourism. contact driver greater understanding camaraderie people, leads improved intercultural attitudes, reduced intergroup tension world peace (Amir Garti, 1977; Durko Petrick, 2016; Pettigrew, 1998). Areas affected conflict leverage historical significance war promoting dark tourism attractions (Anson, 1999; Butler Baum, 1999). Dark Economic Development Africa Report 2017 156 Box 6. Data methodology Global Peace Index measure negative peace opposed positive peace. Positive peace greater international understanding, cultural learning, friendliness, harmony active cooperation people groups (Galtung, 1969; Pratt Liu, 2016). Data Global Peace Index starting 2007. , Index include data African countries 2007, sample period 2008–2014 Index serves proxy peace. Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index World Bank indicators prepare worldwide governance indicators. Index values range approximately -2.5 (weak) 2.5 (strong). Index analysis due availability data longer period; period 2002–2014, complete consecutive time series , considered. addition, Index represents measure peace, relies perceptions likelihood political instability / politically motivated violence, main determinants peace African countries, politics struggles achieve political goals play important role regard stability levels. Box table 1 Instrumental variable (-stage squares) regression findings: Tourism beneficiary peace TOURISM AS DEPENDENT VARIABLE T_ARR (INTERNATIONAL TOURIST ARRIVALS) T_REV (TOURISM EXPORT REVENUES) Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Global Peace Index - 1.86*** -12.8 (-4.08) (-0.91) Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index 0.17** 0.54*** -2.24 -3.23 Gross domestic product 0.56*** 0.001** 0.94* 0.001** -7.32 -4.42 -1.83 -2.13 Foreign direct investment 0.02 0.004 0.06 0.001* -1 -12.29 -0.36 -1.93 Urban population -0.002 -0.002 (-0.78) (-0.51) Constant -117.2 -40.51 8.77 -203.76 (-1.38) (-1.00) -0.78 (-2.53) R2 0.444 0.3341 0.01 0.1022 Number observations 186 564 191 200 Source: UNCTAD calculations, based World Bank, 2017. Note: Values parentheses represent -statistics, *, ** *** 10, 5 1 cent. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 157 ensure Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index line Global Peace Index part empirical analysis, correlation coefficient indices measured; coefficient equals -0.82 significant 1 cent level. strong negative correlation explained fact higher Global Peace Index ( measure negative peace) interpreted level peace, higher Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index greater degree peace. Data T_Arr T_Rev 2008–2014 2002–2014. shown figure, empirical analysis Global Peace Index proxy peace. indicators T_Arr T_Rev serve proxies development tourism, sample 31 African countries T_Arr 32 countries T_Rev. sample period 2008–2014 , providing 186 192 observations, . empirical analysis Political Stability Absence Violence Terrorism Index proxy peace. Data 54 African countries. , data tourism indicators unavailable 7 African countries. Information peace development tourism 2002–2014 47 African countries, providing 564 observations. indicators research dataset summarizes views quality governance large number enterprise, citizen expert survey respondents developed developing countries. Data gathered number international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, tanks, survey institutes private- sector firms. project reports aggregate individual governance indicators 200 countries territories 1996–2015, dimensions governance: voice accountability, political stability absence violence, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule law control corruption. Details underlying data sources, aggregation method interpretation indicators methodology paper (Kaufmann al., 2010). Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Libya, Mauritania, Somalia South Sudan. Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, ôte ’Ivoire, Democratic Republic Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Box 6 (contd.) Economic Development Africa Report 2017 158 tourism defined act travel sites death, suffering seemingly macabre (Stone, 2006), visitations places tragedies historically noteworthy deaths occurred continue impact people’ lives (Tarlow, 2005). addition, sites related natural human disasters sites remembrance, tourism attractions (Kang al., 2012). Dark tourism sites encompass sites varied battlefields related murder mass death, cemeteries, graveyards mausoleums. Dark tourism sites Africa include : Ghana, Elmina Castle slave market Salaga; Rwanda, Kigali Genocide Memorial; Senegal, House Slaves; South Africa, District Museum Robben Island. installation peace parks represents tourism-oriented strategy aims encourage peace bordering countries (Gelbman, 2010; Gelbman Maoz, 2012). parks serve dark tourism sites celebrate war (Kang al., 2012). international borders generally barriers development tourism, creation transborder conservation zones serve symbolic literal demonstrations international cooperation sustainable development (Weed, 1994). Goal 16 specifically refer tourism, promote cultural understanding, strengthen cultural identities stimulate entrepreneurial activity, helps avoid conflicts sustain peace. 5.6 Negative perceptions continent managed tourism flourish Africa’ tourism sector growing strongly, accounts 4.5 cent global international tourist arrivals 3 cent international tourism receipts (UNWTO, 2016a). region lags rest world attracting international tourists revenue, abundance cultural heritages natural resources suitable leisure adventure tourism. due quality infrastructure depth poverty, ineffective tourism marketing campaigns, negative media perceptions continent impact popular impressions Africa continent , , attraction tourism sector. detailed chapter 1, outbreak Ebola virus disease negative perceptions media scale problem Africa. led thousands travellers cancel visits, countries located thousands miles nearest Tourism transformative inclusive growth 159 outbreak. Similarly, 2014, coastal tourism Kenya declined United States travel warning prohibited government employees visiting coastal areas (African Development Bank al., 2015). Travel bans negative perceptions continent – unintended – adversely impact prospects Africa’ tourism industry. Travel warnings issued government wishes ensure citizens carefully travel country. Examples reasons issuing travel warning include unstable governments, civil war ongoing intense crime violence. travel warnings prohibit citizens visiting destination, indefinite status long-term effects tourist destination lasting effects tourism sector, decline tourist arrivals result unemployment exacerbate existing instability. , 1996–2015, Department State United States issued travel warnings African countries countries continent; 80 countries travel warnings issued, 30 Africa (African Development Bank al., 2015). October 2015, Russian Federation issued indefinite ban air travel Egypt, greatly impacted tourist arrivals Egypt ( Economist, 2016). highlights important African policymakers pay greater attention increasing levels intraregional domestic tourism order reduce continent’ dependence international tourism. number academic studies attest importance impact tourist perceptions based destination image (Gibson al., 2008; Rajesh, 2013). , researchers developed effective models promoting rebranding countries regions negative images. study South Africa’ image effects promoting country tourist destination proposed relevant marketing strategies promotion events deeds sports events, elements related trade, investment tourism influenced, , related history geography, (Marshalls, 2010). Increased involvement governments needed promote destinations, economic importance country’ image significant boosting tourism industry. Changing entrenched country images perceptions complex, challenging important concept African tourism international relations marketing continent (Marshalls, 2010). people closely heed travel warnings related updates, relying global public media outlets. , positive stories progress growth attractions events Africa international media ( Economist, 2000; Independent, 2013). Africa-related news delivered global public media outlets presents continent stricken famine, poverty Economic Development Africa Report 2017 160 disease, excludes items vibrant cultures, rapidly growing innovations ICTs telecommunications modern development. African governments tourism authorities challenge perceptions. Africa comprises 54 countries, practice singling problem country generalizing situation affecting entire continent challenged vigorously. African citizens greater efforts continent’ stories, allowing foreign media outlets exclusively. extent, media Africa reinforce efforts challenge image presented global public media outlets. African media stakeholders tourism industry address actively contributing process challenging stereotypes educating public Africa. African Union member States address bottlenecks related safety security, infrastructure, travel services accommodation, . improve perception African continent , partnership private sector, tour operators stakeholders prepared, , redesign existing exhibitions promotional initiatives tourism sector. global media powerful influential stakeholder sector , , dynamic proactive cooperation governments, private sector actors media critical. Destination image-building perception management ongoing dialogue people worldwide. 5.7 Policies play role creating virtuous circle peace development tourism support hypothesis development tourism lead peace Africa, room substantial improvement positive relationship. light results, African countries implement policies strengthen sector, policies contribute peace development tourism. analysis detailed chapter shows bidirectional causal relationship peace tourism, impact peace tourism greater impact tourism peace. results consistent prior study 111 countries 2008–2012 (Pratt Liu, 2016). positive effect development tourism peace Africa pronounced Eastern, Western Southern Africa Northern Africa ( table 16). addition, evidence effect tourism peace pronounced countries facing deterioration stability (involving presence armed conflicts civil war), compared countries established peace. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 161 development tourism significant positive effect peace countries move armed conflict civil war peaceful environment. generate virtuous circle, peace contributes tourism, contributes peace, spurs development tourism, number conditions fulfilled. , shown pioneer studies applied intergroup contact hypothesis tourism sector, tourism play role improving intercultural understanding, supportive atmosphere, interactions voluntary participants share common goals (Anastasopoulos, 1992; De Kadt, 1979; Krippendorf, 1987; Pizam al., 1991). , counter risks political unrest, countries devise comprehensive multi-stakeholder planning crisis management procedures, tight security tourist areas availability safe shelters tourists. Similarly, countries include tourism national disaster management plans collaboration national regional institutions efforts revitalize sector, infrastructure finance marketing initiatives, successful. countries, Botswana, Kenya, South Africa Swaziland, included tourism national disaster management plans. , South Africa established tourism safety task group includes Department Environmental Affairs Tourism, South African Police Service South African Tourism Board. tourism sector Africa transition paradigm crisis management culture disaster prevention. , areas previously affected conflict, historical significance war leveraged promoting dark tourism attractions, African policymakers valorize potential dark tourism sites educate population, youth, importance peace reconciliation. Fourth, political crisis, African Governments revitalize tourism sector, tourism-related small medium-sized enterprises, broad stimulus package, including interest rates loans, fiscal policies promotional trips foreign tour operators, restore confidence destination. Significant efforts rebrand destination, political perception marketplace, explored, shift focus traditional tourist markets segments susceptible impact political unrest. , shift international tourism greater emphasis domestic tourism considered, susceptible effects political turbulence. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 162 , African Governments implementing strategies address negative perceptions continent global public media outlets adversely affect development tourism. African citizens greater efforts continent’ stories, allowing foreign media outlets exclusively. Lastly, stronger regional efforts achieve peace important, effects political unrest tourism reach national borders, country considered part itinerary tourists substitute destination country . CHAPTER 6 Main messages recommendations report examines key policy issues underlying role tourism play Africa’ development process. finds tourism engine transformative inclusive growth complement development strategies aimed fostering economic diversification structural transformation policy context. chapter recapitulates main findings, key messages policy recommendations report. “Africa position global tourism player. African countries, tourism main economic activity, lack strategically integrated product development regional tourism policies. report helps address issues. , African tourism grounded sound interregional intraregional policies, promote strong intersectoral linkages. Tourism isolation struggle prosper.” Carmen Nibigira, Regional Coordinator, East Africa Tourism Platform Tourism transformative inclusive growth 165 6.1 Main findings main findings report : • Tourism dynamic fast growing sector 1995, sector expanded significantly, number tourist arrivals continent doubling 24 million 1995–1998 48 million 2005–2008, increasing 56 million 2011–2014. Tourism export revenues, include inbound tourism expenditures international passenger transport services, experienced similar growth trajectory. Tourism export revenues tripled, increasing $14 billion 1995–1998 $41 billion 2005–2008, rising $47 billion 2011–2014. , tourism export revenues arrival increased average $580 1995–1998 $850 2011–2014. Africa’ tourism sector grown strongly, volatility global financial crisis (2008/09). Tourism export revenues peaked 2012 resilient shocks financial flows FDI remittances. • Tourism boasts virtually uninterrupted growth Tourism’ total contribution Africa’ GDP, includes direct contributions indirect impacts, increased average $69 billion 1995–1998 $166 billion 2011–2014, , 6.8 cent GDP 8.5 cent GDP. Tourism’ direct contribution GDP primarily reflects economic activity generated industries hotels, travel agencies, airlines passenger transportation services restaurants, related leisure industries. Tourism’ direct contribution Africa’ GDP $30 billion 1995–1998 (2.9 cent GDP), increasing $70 billion 2011–2014 (3.5 cent real GDP). annual average rate growth tourism’ direct contribution real GDP 2.6 cent 2011–2014. 2015, sector’ direct contribution continent’ GDP increased $73 billion forecast rise $121 billion 2026 (World Travel Tourism Council, 2016). 2011–2014, tourism attracted average capital investment $26 billion (1.8 cent GDP), rising $30 billion 2016. • Tourism key driver growth small island developing States economies Tourism key sector countries, African SIDS. fact, tourism-driven countries terms sector’ contribution national GDP SIDS: Seychelles (62 cent), Cabo Verde (43 cent) Mauritius Economic Development Africa Report 2017 166 (27    cent). small economies dependent export services. African SIDS, critical exploit benefits tourism, requires developing comprehensive tourism strategy integrated national development plans. SIDS, tourism promising foreign exchange earning activity, introduces tensions regard local population ecological sustainability, limited SIDS, critical, greater vulnerability impacts climate change. , creative, sustainable expansion tourism mitigate tensions, achieving degree environmentally friendly development, Sao Tome Principe. Tourism important sector variety -small island developing State economies, African oil-exporting economies dependent tourism. • Tourism major category international trade services share services sector Africa’ GDP 50.5 cent average 2011–2014, making biggest contributor output. 2011–2014, tourism export revenues accounted 46 cent services exports 7 cent total exports. reflects tourism liberalized sector. Tourism export revenues grew strongly 9 cent year 1995–2014, services exports grew 8.3 cent year period. report finds Africa’ tourism trade balance rest world remained positive 1995, , foreign exchange earned lost due tourism. • 14 jobs supported tourism industry Tourism’ total contribution employment 2011–2014, generated 21 million jobs, roughly 1 14 jobs Africa (7.1 cent total employment). Tourism generated 8.8 million jobs ;56 forecast rise 11.7 million jobs, increase 2.5 cent year, 2016 2026 (World Travel Tourism Council, 2016). Tourism labour-intensive sector entry barriers strong absorptive capacity job creation skilled unskilled workers. sector’ projected robust growth stimulate job creation diversification economy. • Tourism critical inclusive growth continent Tourism play important role global fight reduce poverty achieve Sustainable Development Goals. generating economic benefits boosting 56 includes employment hotels, travel agencies, airlines passenger transporta- tion services, restaurants related leisure industries. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 167 productive capacities, tourism potential foster inclusion reducing poverty inequalities vulnerable groups poor, youth women. Tourism labour-intensive sector impact poverty wage employment local sourcing labour material inputs sector. Tourism critical source employment youth women, employs comparatively high shares women youth. global level, women 60 70 cent tourism labour force, 50 cent aged 25 younger. reflected Africa hotels restaurants sector leading employer women; management level, tourism sector Africa female employers sector contribute inclusive growth. Tourism impact poverty stronger agricultural linkages expand sale foodstuffs, goods services sector, dynamic effects arising infrastructure ( roads, information communications technology) contribute rural development. Strong tourism–agriculture intersectoral linkages support poor rural communities women, dominate sector ( employees entrepreneurs provide tourist-relevant products), stimulate wage employment opportunities rural -farm economy. diversity tourism strength; integrate vulnerable groups – skilled unskilled – chain strengthened product diversification labour diversity . • Fostering greater addition tourism chain strengthen intersectoral linkages Leakage revenue generated tourism lost countries’ economies. heterogeneity patterns leakages intersectoral linkages countries. , South Africa’ higher degree leakages emerges strikingly, foreign added sources accounting roughly final demand hotels restaurants sector ( proxy tourism sector), compared 20–25 cent case Tunisia, Asian comparators, Indonesia Thailand ( chapter 2). suggests South African tourism sector characterized pronounced dependence international supply chains. similar pattern dependence foreign added sources arises relation intersectoral linkages, notably agriculture light manufacturing. industries account share hotels’ restaurants’ final demand South Africa Tunisia compared Asian counterparts, weight foreign added sources appears higher, highlighting untapped potential harness tourism’ linkages rest economy. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 168 • Intraregional tourism growing significant terms volume data compiled intraregional tourist arrivals specifically prepared report, 4 10 international tourists Africa 2010–2013 originated continent. share rose 34.4 cent 2010 40.3 cent 2013. share regional tourists total international tourist arrivals increasing Africa, global average. Northern Africa, 8 10 tourists continent, -Saharan Africa 1 3; continental tourism flows rising steadily. Destinations South depend travellers Europe North America tend record strong fluctuations, visited boreal winters. Regional tourism evenly distributed year smooth seasonality effects contribute stable employment. increase continental, intraregional domestic tourism, tourism product strategies adjusted cater groups. , terms tourism spending 2006, domestic spending higher growing faster international tourism receipts. regional economic communities continue deepen integration move monetary unions, report examines removing currency restrictions impact inbound tourism. results analysis suggest introduction currency restrictions 2005–2015 10 cent growth international tourism receipts. , capital controls exchange rate policies influenced factors tourism development. 12 African countries implement 1999 Yamoussoukro Decision, Open Skies Africa create extra 155,000 jobs, result increase 5 million passengers, contribute $1.3 billion continent’ GDP generate $1 billion consumer benefits (Intervistas Consulting, 2014). • Tourism improves peacefulness report finds potential improvement peacefulness levels result progress tourism performance pronounced Africa compared worldwide context. peace Africa ( average) peace gained, part development tourism. positive effect development tourism peacefulness pronounced Eastern, Southern Western Africa Northern Africa. addition, evidence effect development tourism peacefulness pronounced countries facing deterioration stability, , conditions armed conflict civil war, compared countries established peace. Tourism transformative inclusive growth 169 6.2 Main policy recommendations policy analysis discussion underlying report summarized main messages. , African countries harness dynamism tourism sector promote structural transformation. part, regional demand tourism services increasing owing rise disposable incomes middle class. higher disposable incomes, transport facilitated access visas underpin trend provide Africans means travel . , segments tourism market developing medical tourism, provide impetus development investment health-care infrastructure, Ghana, Mauritius Nigeria. Africa’ tourism sector dynamic largely demand driven, requires government support partnership private sector sector competitive developed. Attracting private investment partnership provision State finance address sector bottlenecks, facilitation air passenger access, basic infrastructure skilled labour require integration sector national development plans communities concerned. governments local actors critical role play. Governments reducing visa bureaucracy improving information communications technology, security, underdeveloped health care, airlines transport infrastructure. Support long term local private sector operate hotels compete international hotel chains present country. Joint ventures encouraged local firms international hotel operators ownership management hotels involves mix local foreign capital. Local tour operators provide online booking services tourists purchase tickets destination packages local suppliers international tour operators ( , generating greater local content tourism chains). tourism sector offers promising avenue boosting services exports African countries part economic diversification strategies. Investments tourism-related infrastructure important employment effects. Hotel, airport, road wider construction projects provide opportunities labour- intensive activities direct public procurement practices. rural tourism prevalent building activities local materials, local technologies local small-scale enterprises greater potential generate employment. Similarly, employment-intensive activity, waste management neglected ( underfunded) crucial area, mass market tourism ecologically sensitive development envisaged. Economic Development Africa Report 2017 170 , countries reduce leakages tourism sector fostering economic diversification. Developing strong intersectoral linkages crucial ensuring greater capture tourists’ expenditures – key determinant facilitating transfer economic benefits sector local communities, incomes derived employment business opportunities contributing improved livelihoods poverty reduction. scope African countries harness intersectoral linkages tourism support development viable upstream industries, services sector, agriculture manufacturing segments. degree heterogeneity, intersectoral linkages tourism consideration country- sector-level contexts. input–output structure chain influences intersectoral linkages tourism, conducive policy framework remains critical fostering economic diversification, local sourcing promoting local addition. policy framework focus effectiveness existing national strategies ( trade, finance, investment, technology job creation) promoting economic growth, partly relies multisectoral investment technological upgrading national level. Productive investment critical, drive growth, job creation, innovation trade. highlighted UNCTAD (2016a), finance critically needed provide firms capital develop, facilitate private public investments infrastructure, plants equipment foster greater competitiveness. UNCTAD noted, reaching levels development needed fulfil Sustainable Development Goals achieve continent’ agreed long- term Agenda 2063 goals require action development partners acting revitalized Global Partnership Sustainable Development (UNCTAD, 2016b). , tourism contribute inclusive growth policy framework place. Tackling poverty requires promoting decent work formal informal economy. Tourism provide significant opportunities poor labour-intensive sector expenditure reach . , rural areas poor communities concentrated comparative advantage attracting tourism, locals potentially positioned provide popular tourism products music, handicrafts tours. Linkages local communities suppliers fostered integrate poor tourism chain. Youth unemployment critical concern Africa young population. Tourism playing important role generating jobs young people, key challenge sector concerns matching education skills young people jobs . Active efforts enhance tourism hospitality schools employable sector, positive externality tourism Tourism transformative inclusive growth 171 employers absorb staff training costs. Additional measures promote vocational skills training, informal apprenticeship schemes, enhance measures. Women tend disproportionately engaged vulnerable poorest paid activities challenged vertical segregation, unequal pay, discrimination access finance education. , women active tourism face odds sector. Women return contribute significant benefits tourism – actively encouraging female participation tourism improve tourism product diversification protection local cultures environments. Female participation boosted providing training increase choice jobs women chances promotion, improving working conditions promote - women positions. Women’ entrepreneurship encouraged harness skills, promote innovation sector growth. Fourth, African leaders focus strengthening development continental intraregional tourism. Intraregional tourism Africa increasing offers opportunities economic export diversification, potential recognized regional economic community national levels. African countries benefit progress free movement persons liberalization air transport services. facilitate greater access tourism destinations boost destinations’ competitiveness. requires regional economic communities countries plan comprehensively segment tourism. negotiations creation continental free trade area goods services progresses, governments ensure specific attention devoted tourism, accounts major share Africa’ trade services exports. , envisaged Agenda 2063, tourism increase Africa’ share global trade goods services, require development regional integrated tourism policies, implemented concerted manner regional economic communities, continental tourism platform set service standards coordinate supportive frameworks regions ensure Africa’ improved competitiveness global tourism business. include developing products specifically African market ( chapters 2 4). , require shift focus place greater emphasis importance African tourists tastes. , regional collaboration tackling crises critical growth tourism sector preserving peace. counter risks political unrest, countries devise comprehensive multi-stakeholder planning crisis management Economic Development Africa Report 2017 172 procedures ( tight security tourist areas availability safe shelter tourists). Similarly, countries include tourism national disaster management plans national regional institutions efforts revitalize sector crisis ( infrastructure finance marketing initiatives) successful. case stronger regional efforts achieve peace, effects political unrest tourism spill borders, country considered part itinerary tourists substitute destination country . Sixth, Africa continue raise levels investment tourism sector achieve targets African Tourism Strategy Agenda 2063. African Union Partnership Africa’ Development tourism priority area economic transformation. 2004, Africa adopted Tourism Action Plan Partnership Africa’ Development, framework foster sustainable tourism continent. Subsequently, Ten-Year Implementation Plan 2014–2023 Agenda 2063, full implementation African tourism strategy establishment African tourism organization envisaged, target double contribution tourism GDP real terms 2014 2023. total contribution tourism GDP increased 6.8 cent 1995–1998 8.5 cent 2011–2014, peak 9.6 cent 2005–2008, challenging achieve target 2023. rate, tourism sector grow faster GDP rapidly global financial crisis. recommendations outlined report intended contribute realization targets African tourism strategy Agenda 2063. Finally, urgent address lack tourism data. undertaken part ongoing efforts improve macroeconomic data collection. African Governments, collaboration development partners, develop implement effective methods collecting tourism data accurately assess sector’ contribution social economic development. , present, countries experiencing severe shortage basic tourism statistics. information components tourism sector contribute aggregate impact, distribution impacts increased. large amount data required evaluating supply- demand-related aggregates, remains challenge effectively disaggregate data evaluate economic impact varies type tourist, type tourism structure sector. dearth data tourism activities categorized gender inconsistent measurement flows cross-border traders ( -category business tourists) continent. part, accurate measurement effects tourism policy analysis Tourism transformative inclusive growth 173 hindered sector designated industry standard economic accounts. highlights government improved data, enhanced quantitative economic policy analysis sector. 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Economic Development Africa Report 2017: Tourism Transformative Inclusive Growth examines role tourism play Africa’ development process. identifies main barriers unlocking potential tourism Africa structurally transform continent’ economy policy recommendations overcome . sum, tourism engine inclusive growth complement development strategies aimed fostering economic diversification structural transformation policy context. unctad.org/Africa/series “ occasion International Year Sustainable Tourism Development, insightful timely report highlights importance tourism sector Africa, proposes clear policies harness potential build inclusive future Africa people.” Taleb Rifai, Secretary-General, World Tourism Organization “ important report tourism, inclusive growth regional integration essential reading policymakers, academics tourism practitioners concerned job creation future economic social development Africa.” Christian . Rogerson, Professor, School Tourism Hospitality, University Johannesburg, South Africa AT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN REPORT 2017 Tourism Transformative Inclusive Growth ISBN 978-92-1-112910-6 au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive RAPPORT 2017 LE ÉVELOPPEMENT ÉCONOMIQUE EN AFRIQUE É AT É “Pour des millions ’Africains, le tourisme est secteur vital dont la contribution potentielle à une croissance transformatrice inclusive doit être exploité.” Mukhisa Kituyi Secrétaire ééral de la CNUCED York Genève, 2017 CONFÉRENCE DES NATIONS UNIES SUR LE COMMERCE ET LE ÉVELOPPEMENT Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ii Note Les cotes des documents de ’Organisation des Nations Unies se composent de lettres ’ document de ’Organisation. Les appellations employées dans la présente publication la présentation des données É Afrique de ’Est Afrique centrale Afrique du Nord Afrique australe Afrique de ’Ouest UNCTAD/ALDC/AFRICA/2017 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive iii Remerciements Le Rapport 2017 sur le éveloppement économique en Afrique : Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Rapport sur le éveloppement économique en Afrique. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Table des matières INTRODUCTION CHAPITRE 1 CHAPITRE 3 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 vi CHAPITRE 4 CHAPITRE 5 CHAPITRE 6 ÉFERENCES 175 ENCADRÉ Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive vii FIGURES Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 viii TABLEAUX FIGURES DE ’ENCADRÉ TABLEAU DE ’ENCADRÉ Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Abréviations Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Glossaire TOURISME CONTINENTAL ET TOURISME INTRARÉGIONAL Le tourisme continental le tourisme intrarégional sont deux sous-catégories du tourisme international. CONTRIBUTION DIRECTE À ’EMPLOI CONTRIBUTION DIRECTE AU PRODUIT INTÉRIEUR BRUT (PIB) TOURISME INTERNE TOURISME ÉCEPTEUR autre pays. ÉPENSES DE TOURISME ÉCEPTEUR de éérence. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive TOURISME INTERNATIONAL pays de éérence. TOURISME ÉMETTEUR pays. ÉPENSES DE TOURISME ÉMETTEUR CONTRIBUTION TOTALE À ’EMPLOI ’ajoutent les emplois indirects induits. CONTRIBUTION TOTALE AU PIB ses effets indirects induits. ÉPENSES TOURISTIQUES COMPTE SATELLITE DU TOURISME national de comptabilité. INTRODUCTION Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Pendant le continent renforce ses capacité productives, approfondit son intégration égionale la contribution potentielle du secteur touristique à une les pays africains devraient adopter des politiques Contribution totale du tourisme au produit intérieur brut éel, 2011-2014 (en pourcentage) Maurice Seychelles Cabo Verde 43.4 26.7 61.5 25 % entre 10 24,9 % entre 5 9,9 % En dessous de 5 % Aucune donné disponible Maurice 26.7 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive % en moyenne par % par . La contribution totale moyenne milliards de dollars en Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Le Rapport 2017 sur le éveloppement économique de ’Afrique : Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive des liens intersectoriels. ’exportation peut être considérable. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive jeunes. concrétisation de la contribution potentielle du tourisme à la transformation structurelle peut contribuer à la transformation structurelle du continent. • • Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 • • continental. contribueront Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le pré rapport se compose de chapitres. Le Le Le femmes. Le pourrait être stimulé par une intégration égionale poussé dans les domaines de la du transport érien. Le Le CHAPITRE 1 Le secteur du Faits stylisé Le chapitre 1 présente des faits stylisé sur les recettes du pré rapport. En moyenne,1/14 emploi éé créé par ’industrie du tourisme en 2011-2014 = 21 millions +6% par en 1995−2014 +9% par en 1995−2014 ~$47 milliards par en 2011−2014 7% du total des recettes ’exportation, en moyenne, en 2011−2014 ~56 millions par en 2011−2014 Arrivées de touristes internationaux en Afrique Recettes ’exportation du tourisme en Afrique 46% des recettes ’exportation des services, en moyenne, en 2011−2014 tes auxx Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive englobe les excursionnistes les branche est caractérisé par achats les loisirs occupent une place centrale dans de nombreuses expériences touriste dans la Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Le pré rapport fonde son analyse sur trois formes de tourisme • • • Le rapport porte en outre sur le tourisme continental le tourisme intrarégional. sont examinées dans le pré rapport. recettes ’exportation du tourisme recettes du tourisme international . - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive % Figure 1 - constituait une situation ’urgence. 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 En ill rs pe rs ne En ill io ns lla rs Recettes ’exportation du tourisme (échelle de gauche) Arrivées de touristes internationaux (échelle de droite) Recettes du tourisme international (échelle de gauche) Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 (En milliers de personnes) MOYENNE TAUX DE CROISSANCE ANNUEL MOYEN Algérie .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Angola 32 205 564 592 22 83 16 9 énin 145 183 226 255 4 3 2 5 Botswana 598 1 684 1 708 .. .. 13 13 .. Burkina Faso 138 268 221 163 4 9 4 -7 Burundi 22 189 190 131 16 -28 9 21 Cabo Verde 41 248 477 520 16 23 13 5 Cameroun 181 328 706 .. .. 37 .. .. épublique centrafricaine 18 18 79 121 12 -33 35 14 Tchad 27 53 96 120 8 30 32 17 Comores 25 21 22 24 -2 6 -21 6 Congo 31 50 298 .. .. -20 21 21 ôte ’Ivoire 250 .. .. .. .. 17 .. .. épublique émocratique du Congo 39 53 181 .. .. 11 -7 .. Djibouti 21 41 60 .. .. 0 19 .. Égypte 3 317 9 949 9 874 9 139 8 4 15 -2 Guiné équatoriale .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Érythré .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Éthiopie 116 325 643 864 12 5 18 14 Gabon 158 269 .. .. .. 16 .. .. Gambie 75 131 148 135 5 25 11 13 Ghana 316 553 886 897 7 7 18 1 Guiné 17 36 79 35 .. .. -21 -37 Guiné-Bissau .. 13 36 44 .. .. 51 0 Kenya 896 1 423 1 516 1 114 4 -5 -5 -10 Lesotho 129 308 345 .. .. 19 .. .. Libéria .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Libye 57 49 .. .. .. -20 -24 .. Madagascar 95 327 225 244 6 18 11 -3 Malawi 203 638 788 805 10 5 19 2 Mali 75 163 151 159 6 19 10 2 Mauritanie .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Maurice 501 847 991 1 152 4 10 8 3 Maroc 2 866 6 922 9 762 10 177 8 7 11 4 Mozambique .. 802 1 891 1 552 .. .. 26 -5 Namibie 462 868 1 151 1 388 6 29 7 9 Niger 53 60 109 135 5 5 5 19 Nigéria 707 1 162 600 1 255 .. 1 9 .. Rwanda .. 522 823 987 .. .. .. 10 Sao Tomé--Principe 6 14 12 .. .. -6 -3 .. éégal 307 844 989 1 007 8 8 4 1 Seychelles 128 148 216 276 3 2 8 7 Sierra Leone 14 35 59 24 9 -12 -4 -2 Somalie .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Afrique du Sud 5 028 8 612 9 153 8 904 4 8 9 5 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive MOYENNE TAUX DE CROISSANCE ANNUEL MOYEN Soudan du Sud .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Soudan 33 363 597 741 22 4 22 8 Swaziland 292 834 919 873 9 -3 -3 3 Togo 68 84 286 273 9 13 -4 1 Tunisie 4 247 6 685 6 815 5 359 3 5 3 7 Ouganda 176 623 1 205 1 303 14 6 21 3 épublique-Unie de Tanzanie 349 664 1 016 1 104 6 16 9 9 Zambie 283 784 910 932 8 30 8 2 Zimbabwe .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. CEN–SAD 13 628 28 996 32 342 31 117 6 5 9 1 COMESA 7 754 17 003 19 098 18 585 6 5 13 0 CAE 1 443 3 290 4 750 4 639 8 1 10 1 CEEAC 512 813 1 718 964 8 18 9 -9 CEDEAO 2 201 3 778 4 115 4 901 5 7 8 -4 IGAD 1 242 2 774 4 005 4 022 8 -2 8 0 SADC 9 689 16 695 19 497 17 822 5 10 10 6 UMA 7 169 13 656 16 577 15 536 6 6 7 5 Afrique de ’Est 4 365 7 221 10 479 10 488 6 8 12 1 Afrique centrale 491 624 1 528 833 7 21 10 -12 Afrique du Nord 10 519 23 967 27 047 25 416 7 5 10 3 Afrique australe 6 508 12 229 12 762 11 165 5 9 9 8 Afrique de ’Ouest 2 201 3 778 4 115 4 901 5 7 8 -4 Calculs de la CNUCED, ’aprè des données provenant de ’OMT. Le tourisme ’ absolument pas la ê importance dans les différents pays sous- Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 les recettes du tourisme international les épenses de tourisme écepteur afférentes . La épartition égionale des recettes du tourisme international des recettes dollars. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive écemment produite. Les recettes ’exportation du tourisme ayant fortement progressé recettes ’exportation du tourisme éé érieure à celle du total des exportations de % de ce total. ’importante contribution tourisme Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 EC ET TE IS IN TE AT IO EC ET TE ’ TA TI IS OY EN TA CR IS SA CE EL OY EN OY EN TA CR IS SA CE EL OY EN 19 95 - 19 98 20 05 - 20 08 20 11 - 20 14 20 15 19 95 - 20 14 19 95 19 98 20 05 20 08 20 11 - 20 14 19 95 - 19 98 20 05 - 20 08 20 11 - 20 14 20 15 19 95 - 20 14 19 95 - 19 98 20 05 - 20 08 20 11 - 20 14 Al é rie 45 23 7 23 4 30 8 12 23 18 8 .. 41 9 31 7 35 7 .. .. -2 6 la 9 16 8 1 04 4 1 16 3 36 -6 59 39 32 18 1 1 05 1 1 17 1 26 7 51 38 ni 71 16 5 17 3 15 4 6 -1 1 36 -4 67 16 8 18 0 16 0 .. .. 33 -7 Bo ts 14 2 55 6 89 5 94 8 12 6 1 4 15 0 56 0 89 8 95 0 12 4 2 4 Bu rk Fa .. 54 11 2 .. .. .. 11 27 .. 61 15 7 .. .. .. 20 20 Bu ru 1 1 3 2 7 -3 6 -4 21 2 2 4 3 5 -2 0 -2 14 Ca bo er de 14 24 7 39 8 35 2 24 27 43 4 40 31 6 45 7 39 6 18 18 35 2 Ca er ou 77 18 5 44 5 .. .. 27 -1 .. 11 5 22 0 46 9 .. .. 11 -8 .. é pu bl iq ue en tra fri ca .. 8 11 .. .. .. 20 .. 3 10 15 .. .. -4 17 .. 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Ke ny 56 6 73 4 88 8 .. 4 22 11 -4 97 5 1 26 6 1 87 8 .. 5 17 14 -1 Le 29 29 20 13 -1 -3 4 -1 4 30 .. .. .. .. -5 .. .. Li é ria .. 12 0 14 4 46 .. .. 30 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Li 3 14 7 .. .. .. 46 -3 7 .. 9 18 6 .. .. .. 64 -3 5 .. ad ag ca 72 25 9 53 6 .. .. 16 23 .. 11 4 27 1 54 0 .. .. 9 23 .. al aw 24 29 31 35 1 10 3 0 28 45 35 39 2 4 -4 -1 al 24 20 5 18 6 .. 14 0 23 3 27 20 9 18 9 .. 14 1 25 2 au rit 18 .. 42 29 .. 21 .. .. .. .. 47 31 .. .. .. .. au ric 47 7 1 15 9 1 43 3 1 43 2 8 4 20 -2 66 5 1 49 4 1 72 5 1 67 9 7 2 16 -3 ( ill io ns lla rs ) Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive EC ET TE IS IN TE AT IO EC ET TE ’ TA TI IS OY EN TA CR IS SA CE EL OY EN OY EN TA CR IS SA CE EL OY EN ar oc 1 54 0 6 24 9 6 98 2 5 99 9 11 8 17 -1 1 72 7 7 38 0 8 63 5 7 53 4 11 7 18 -2 oz bi qu 57 15 6 18 3 19 3 .. .. 14 14 .. 17 0 21 2 20 2 .. .. 17 9 Na ib 29 8 38 7 45 7 37 8 4 2 4 -8 .. 46 6 57 2 47 2 .. .. 11 -7 Ni ge 22 50 53 .. .. 52 22 .. 27 53 55 .. .. .. 24 .. Ni é ria 39 25 5 56 4 41 2 20 42 10 6 -5 67 41 1 63 6 47 0 16 22 87 -4 Rw da 11 13 0 28 3 31 8 27 12 7 51 6 12 15 4 32 9 40 7 .. 82 46 .. Sa é- - rin ci pe 4 7 29 52 .. .. -1 57 .. .. 44 52 .. .. .. .. é é ga 16 5 39 2 43 4 .. 8 1 37 -2 17 1 48 1 49 2 .. 8 3 29 -2 Se yc lle 14 1 26 4 37 7 39 2 7 2 20 11 19 8 34 9 44 3 48 3 5 -4 16 9 Si er ra eo ne 26 36 48 23 6 -5 4 -1 8 -3 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. al .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Af riq ue Su 2 61 2 8 09 3 9 52 4 8 25 9 10 10 3 -1 3 15 8 9 31 1 10 7 15 9 14 0 9 9 3 -1 ud Su .. .. 1 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ud 6 23 8 67 3 94 9 38 -3 8 37 66 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Sw az ila 43 53 20 14 -2 0 -3 4 -1 7 48 53 20 14 -3 -1 -3 4 -1 5 12 29 11 5 .. 17 -3 29 9 15 33 22 0 .. .. .. 22 5 Tu ni si 1 58 0 2 48 7 2 17 3 1 38 1 3 2 11 6 1 89 3 3 27 0 2 84 1 1 86 9 .. 2 12 5 ug da 11 9 40 6 1 05 5 1 14 9 15 22 10 -4 .. 41 7 1 07 5 1 17 1 4 .. 12 -4 é pu bl iq ue - ni de Ta nz 42 8 1 06 6 1 73 9 2 23 1 9 -1 0 17 14 37 4 1 08 2 1 78 1 2 25 3 .. .. 16 14 Za bi 35 52 4 56 7 66 0 .. .. 8 5 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Zi ba bw .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18 5 27 4 77 4 88 6 11 1 40 8 EN - AD 7 31 9 20 9 27 21 5 79 15 9 99 8 5 16 -3 8 65 6 24 1 46 25 2 57 17 9 79 8 6 18 -3 ES 4 55 5 12 8 84 14 1 08 11 0 47 8 5 16 -7 5 86 3 14 8 27 16 3 39 11 5 80 8 4 18 -1 1 AE 1 12 4 2 33 6 3 96 8 3 70 0 9 9 15 4 1 17 5 2 92 0 4 98 3 3 83 4 10 31 16 2 EE AC 11 6 40 7 1 48 1 1 21 7 18 15 16 17 28 6 41 6 1 43 9 1 22 7 10 1 14 20 ED EA 58 9 2 62 2 3 25 7 1 92 6 12 12 24 0 62 6 2 85 1 3 62 9 2 07 5 12 26 25 -1 IG AD 72 1 1 60 6 2 97 9 2 12 9 10 21 17 -4 1 20 1 2 52 7 3 94 7 1 17 1 9 12 18 -2 0 AD 4 33 4 12 7 42 16 7 08 15 7 18 10 7 7 2 4 79 4 14 2 55 18 6 30 17 2 89 10 10 7 2 3 18 6 9 11 9 9 42 0 7 71 7 8 5 14 1 3 62 9 11 2 55 11 8 29 9 79 1 9 5 14 0 Af riq ue ’ st 1 92 9 4 98 3 7 34 4 6 44 3 9 9 17 -3 2 61 3 6 39 8 9 59 1 7 12 3 9 13 18 -8 Af riq ue en tra le 11 6 40 6 1 47 9 1 21 5 18 16 16 17 28 4 41 4 1 43 5 1 22 3 10 1 14 20 Af riq ue 6 21 8 18 0 40 18 0 37 14 7 02 8 3 16 -3 7 01 0 20 6 97 20 5 14 16 6 57 8 3 17 -4 Af riq ue tra le 3 12 3 9 11 7 10 9 15 9 61 2 9 9 2 -1 3 38 6 10 3 89 12 2 05 10 5 76 9 8 3 -1 Af riq ue ’ ue st 60 7 2 62 2 3 28 8 1 95 5 12 13 24 0 62 6 2 85 1 3 66 5 2 10 6 13 26 25 0 al cu ls la ED , ’ pr è es é es ro ve na nt ’ . La al eu de ce tte es é en rix ou ra nt . Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 RECETTES ’EXPORTATION DU TOURISME EN POURCENTAGE DU TOTAL DES EXPORTATIONS RECETTES ’EXPORTATION DU TOURISME EN POURCENTAGE DU TOTAL DES EXPORTATIONS DE SERVICES 1995-1998 2005-2008 2011-2014 1995-1998 2005-2008 2011-2014 Algérie .. 1 0 .. 15 9 Angola 1 0 2 20 71 93 énin 11 14 8 46 63 39 Botswana 6 10 11 68 84 73 Burkina Faso .. 9 6 .. 72 35 Burundi 2 2 2 20 4 4 Cabo Verde 44 26 24 50 26 25 Cameroun 5 5 9 26 50 76 épublique centrafricaine 1 5 6 5 18 16 Tchad 8 .. .. 45 .. .. Comores 52 48 41 63 57 53 Congo 1 .. .. 13 .. .. ôte ’Ivoire 2 1 1 19 11 19 épublique émocratique du Congo .. .. .. .. .. .. Djibouti .. .. .. .. .. .. Égypte 27 25 18 38 50 43 Guiné équatoriale 1 .. .. 66 .. .. Érythré 38 .. .. 64 .. .. Éthiopie 19 31 30 44 60 68 Gabon 3 0 .. 44 9 .. Gambie 68 63 43 83 70 70 Ghana 5 17 7 44 61 42 Guiné 1 0 0 4 2 2 Guiné-Bissau .. .. 5 .. .. 28 Kenya 25 19 18 51 48 40 Lesotho 13 .. .. 55 .. .. Libéria .. .. .. .. .. .. Libye 0 0 .. 28 55 .. Madagascar 14 14 18 41 31 43 Malawi 5 6 3 84 64 35 Mali 5 11 6 31 59 46 Mauritanie .. .. 2 .. .. 23 Maurice 26 35 30 75 74 55 Maroc 18 27 23 68 59 56 Mozambique .. 6 5 .. 39 34 Namibie .. 14 10 .. 89 61 Niger 8 7 3 72 54 38 Nigéria 0 1 1 9 21 25 (Moyennes) Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive RECETTES ’EXPORTATION DU TOURISME EN POURCENTAGE DU TOTAL DES EXPORTATIONS RECETTES ’EXPORTATION DU TOURISME EN POURCENTAGE DU TOTAL DES EXPORTATIONS DE SERVICES 1995-1998 2005-2008 2011-2014 1995-1998 2005-2008 2011-2014 Rwanda 12 36 30 35 61 67 Sao Tomé--Principe .. .. 89 .. .. 122 éégal 12 18 13 41 48 39 Seychelles 55 43 36 78 81 63 Sierra Leone .. .. .. .. .. .. Somalie .. .. .. .. .. .. Afrique du Sud 9 13 9 62 69 62 Soudan du Sud .. .. .. .. .. .. Soudan* .. .. .. .. .. .. Swaziland 5 3 1 44 17 8 Togo 3 4 12 16 15 45 Tunisie 23 17 13 72 70 59 Ouganda .. 23 24 .. 65 51 épublique-Unie de Tanzanie 29 28 22 67 65 61 Zambie .. .. .. .. .. .. Zimbabwe 8 11 20 .. 92 199 Afrique de ’Est 16 19 15 45 55 45 Afrique centrale 2 1 1 24 15 27 Afrique du Nord 14 10 9 47 52 45 Afrique australe 9 12 9 58 69 62 Afrique de ’Ouest 2 3 2 22 37 34 CEN-SAD 12 10 8 45 51 44 COMESA 15 12 11 42 50 41 EAC 20 23 21 44 56 48 ECCAS 2 1 1 24 15 27 ECOWAS 2 3 2 22 38 34 IGAD 18 13 13 44 48 33 SADC 9 9 8 53 64 60 UMA 9 7 7 60 55 49 * Le Soudan du Sud fait partie du Soudan jusqu’en 2011. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Source milliards à ’emploi. 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 En ill io ns lla rs Balance commerciale touristique épenses totales de tourisme écepteur (recettes ’exportation du tourisme) épenses totales de tourisme émetteur Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive EN MILLIONS DE DOLLARS, EN PRIX ÉELS PART DU PIB ÉEL 1995-1998 2005-2008 2011-2014 2015 1995-1998 2005-2008 2011-2014 2015 Afrique de ’Est 9 148 19 814 26 791 30 088 8.5 12 10.9 10.7 Afrique centrale 2 240 5 050 7 344 8 676 3.3 3.9 4.0 4.2 Afrique du Nord 33 949 77 503 74 882 75 260 8.6 12.9 11.1 10.6 Afrique australe 12 720 27 129 31 131 33 668 6.4 9.4 9.3 9.6 Afrique de ’Ouest 11 135 24 018 26 171 30 295 4.9 6.0 4.9 5.0 Afrique de ’Est 3 858 8 061 10 851 12 235 3.6 4.9 4.5 4.4 Afrique centrale 930 2 187 3 161 3 750 1.3 1.7 1.7 1.8 Afrique du Nord 15 772 35 985 34 696 34 364 4.0 6.0 5.2 4.9 Afrique australe 4 249 8 615 9 821 10 508 2.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 Afrique de ’Ouest 5 036 10 186 11 226 12 596 2.2 2.6 2.1 2.1 Calculs de la CNUCED, ’aprè des données du World Travel Tourism Council.[1] Le World Travel Tourism Council fournit des estimations concernant la part des voyages du tourisme dans le PIB les voyages. ’est pourquoi il est donc question de la contribution du tourisme au PIB à ’emploi. (Moyennes) Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 PAYS PART DU TOURISME DANS LE PRODUIT INTÉRIEUR BRUT ÉEL (MOYENNE 2011-2014) CATÉGORIE DE PAYS Algérie 6.5 Angola 4.0 PMA énin 6.0 PMA Botswana 11.3 PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Burkina Faso 3.5 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Burundi 5.6 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Cabo Verde 43.4 PEID Cameroun 6.6 épublique centrafricaine 6.4 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Tchad 3.8 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Comores 11.9 PEID PMA épublique émocratique du Congo 1.7 PMA Congo 4.3 ôte ’Ivoire 5.0 Djibouti .. PMA Égypte 12.5 Guiné équatoriale .. PMA Érythré .. PMA Éthiopie 10.6 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Gabon 2.4 Gambie 20.5 PMA Ghana 7.7 Guiné 4.5 PMA Guiné-Bissau .. PMA Kenya 10.9 Lesotho 13.2 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Libéria .. PMA Libye 6.6 Madagascar 12.3 PMA Malawi 7.1 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Mali 9.4 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Mauritanie .. PMA Maurice 26.7 PEID Maroc 18.4 Mozambique 7.2 PMA Namibie 14.7 Niger 3.3 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Nigéria 4.0 Rwanda 8.7 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive PAYS PART DU TOURISME DANS LE PRODUIT INTÉRIEUR BRUT ÉEL (MOYENNE 2011-2014) CATÉGORIE DE PAYS Sao Tomé--Principe 15.9 PEID PMA éégal 11.4 PMA Seychelles 61.5 PEID Sierra Leone 5.6 PMA Somalie .. PMA Afrique du Sud 9.1 Soudan du Sud .. PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Soudan 5.1 PMA Swaziland 4.3 PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Togo 8.9 PMA Ouganda 8.5 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL épublique-Unie de Tanzanie 11.0 PMA Tunisie 15.1 Zambie 6.3 PMA PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Zimbabwe 10.9 PAYS EN ÉVELOPPEMENT SANS LITTORAL Calculs de la CNUCED, ’aprè des données provenant du World Travel Tourism Council. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 EMPLOIS DANS LE TOURISME (EN MILLIERS) PART DU TOTAL DES EMPLOIS (EN POURCENTAGE) CROISSANCE ANNUELLE MOYENNE DES EMPLOIS DANS LE TOURISME (EN POURCENTAGE) 1995-1998 4 505 2,2 5,2 2005-2008 8 654 3,3 2,5 2011-2014 8 845 2,9 0,3 1995-1998 10 513 5,2 5,7 2005-2008 20 466 7,9 4,4 2011-2014 21 188 7,1 1,0 Calculs de la CNUCED, ’aprè des données provenant du World Travel Tourism Council. millions ’emplois sur la ériode % % pour cette diminution Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive % des % des ill io ns ’ rr iv é 0 5 10 15 20 25 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Afrique ériques Asie de ’Est Pacifique Europe Moyen- Orient Asie du Sud (En millions ’arrivées internationales) Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Égypte Algérie Maroc Maurice Sierra Leone Madagascar Sao Tomé--Principe éégal Namibie Burkina Faso Botswana Ouganda épublique-Unie de Tanzanie Nigéria Éthiopie Lesotho Mali 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 HommesFemmes milliards de dollars par au cours de la ériode Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive . Le ê exercice éé mené pour les recettes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 ill ia de ol la rs ( lla rs st ts 2 0 0 5 ) ou rc en ta ge Investissements en pourcentage du produit intérieur brut (échelle de droite) Investissements (milliards de dollars constants) (échelle de gauche) Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Tableau 7 COEFFICIENT DE VARIATION épenses afférentes au transport international de voyageurs -1,63 Recettes ’exportation du tourisme 1,46 Envois de fonds 2,72 Aide publique au éveloppement -0,05 Investissement étranger direct 5,10 Recettes ’exportation tirées des matières premières 5,00 Exportations de produits manufacturé 3,12 Calculs de la CNUCED, ’aprè des données provenant de la CNUCED de ’OMT. millions ’ici à . à millions Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Les crises les préoccupations sanitaires ont des épercussions rapides importantes sur le Figure 1 de ’encadré probablement incité les touristes africains extérieurs au continent à reporter ou à annuler leur Encadré 1 0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500 4 000 4 500 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 ec te ’ po rt io du ou ri sm ( ill io ns lla rs ) rr iv é de ite ur é si de nt qu se nt la ui ( ill rs pe rs ne ) Nombre des arrivées de touristes épenses totales des touristes étrangers Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Encadré 1 (suite) éjour dans les pays la égion concerné. Le tourisme interne lui aussi éé limité en raison des restrictions de éplacement entre différents districts de la Sierra Leone imposées par le suspension par plusieurs compagnies des liaisons ériennes internationales égionales Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Encadré 1 (suite) pays de nombreuses entreprises à diminuer le nombre du personnel soignant infecté ont limité le nombre de soignants disposé à ’occuper des 1 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 secteur. . exhaustif éé dressé pour examiner la place accordé au tourisme dans les plans pays africains . • Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive . les atteindre. • préparer à occuper emploi dans le domaine de ’écotourisme. • plan ’action étaillé. . primordiale de cette relation est souligné. - Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 tourisme moins étaillées. Le poids du secteur dans les orientations les allocations budgétaires partenariat. Croissance de ’emploi Nombre de plans nationaux Agriculture Infrastructures Écotourisme Tourisme culturel Tourisme édical Promotion des femmes Liens intersectoriels Croissance inclusive Indicateurs de segmentation du marché touristique Promotion des jeunes 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive . pays africains disposent ’au moins une école de ce genre ou ’ épartement consacré tourisme en commercialisant les pays africains comme des destinations de choix. sur les mesures à prendre pour surmonter les obstacles de faciliter les prises de écisions Mettre le tourisme au service de la transformation structurelle +10,000 touristes de la santé, venus de Madagascar, des Seychelles de ’île de la éunion ont ç traitement édical à Maurice. 2010 Agriculture êche Infrastructures (par exemple, transports, services financiers) Mobilier matériaux de construction Industries de la création Services ’utilité publique (par exemple, Internet, électricité) Services (santé, divertissement) Tourisme Les liens intersectoriels sont indispensables au éveloppement du tourisme Les facteurs de compétitivité de ’industrie du tourisme dans les trois principales destinations - Une connexion Internet étendue à prix abordable - Des infrastructures financières bien éveloppées Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive secteurs secondaire tertiaire sans faire chuter la production ni augmenter les prix des Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Soudan Niger Algérie Guiné Nigéria Maroc Comores énin Sierra Leone Cameroun Soudan du Sud Tunisie Djibouti Congo Afrique du Sud Guiné-Bissau Libye Gabon Malawi Égypte Seychelles Botswana Swaziland Mali Kenya Zimbabwe Sao Tomé--Principe ôte ’Ivoire Gambie Érythré Maurice Togo Madagascar éégal Somalie Lesotho Namibie Cabo Verde Tchad Ghana Libéria Burundi Mozambique Burkina Faso épublique-Unie de Tanzanie Rwanda Ouganda Éthiopie Mauritanie Zambie Guiné équatoriale -1.2 -1.2 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.80 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive en raison de ’absence de données. -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 -0.50 -0.45 -0.40 -0.35 -0.30 -0.25 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 oi nt de ou rc en ta ge ou rc en ta ge Variation annuelle de la part de la valeur ajouté du secteur de ’agriculture, de la chasse, de la êche de la sylviculture (en dollars constants de 2005; axe de gauche) Croissance annuelle des épenses de tourisme (valeurs triennales moyennes; axe de droite) 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 La présente section est consacré aux liens intersectoriels examine comment libérer programmes ’appui pourraient aider à renforcer les liens intersectoriels. ’emplois écoulant des liens entre le tourisme les autres secteurs pourrait renforcer accééé la transition ’une économie axé sur ’agriculture à une économie axé sur ’industrie La transformation structurelle de ’île Maurice Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Les relations entre le tourisme les autres secteurs productifs les segments du marché pays de destination. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 en amont créant indirectement des emplois ayant effet multiplicateur dans - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Bureaux de douane Sur le lieu de destination Construction immobilier Matériaux de construction Énergie Eau échets Éducation Communication écurité santé publiques Institutions ’appui : ministères (du tourisme, du commerce, des transports, de la culture, de ’intérieur, de ’environnement, .), organismes de promotion du commerce, chambres de commerce, banques, organismes ’habilitation de normalisation, . Appui aux infrastructures Fournitures: conséquences économ iques indirectes Conséquences économ iques directes Autorité portuaires Ministères des transports Services de ’immigration élos, bateaux, bus éhicules à moteur Location de élos, de bateaux de voitures Bus, trains tramways ôtels Pensions Appartements Night-clubs Points de restauration rapide Kiosques Souvenirs comestibles Auberges de jeunesse Bars restaurants Objets ’artisanat magasins ’art Artistes, interprètes, . Ministères institutions nationales chargé de la gestion du patrimoine Patrimoine naturel: flore faune, êts, lacs, montagnes, rivières, écifs, . Arts du spectacle (musique, danse, .) Patrimoine culturel: sites archéologiques, communauté locales, musées, attractions touristiques, patrimoine culturel immatériel (musique, danse, égendes, .), festivals, . Spectacles Organisations de guides touristiques Guides touristiques indépendants Forfaits touristiques Centres de bien-être spas Guides de transport Centres ’information Laveries écurité services bancaires Café Internet Épiceries commerces de proximité Taxis Navires transbordeurs/ traversiers Moyens de transport informels Produits consommables Services ’entretien services environnementaux Publicité, commercialisation TIC Usines de fabrication producteurs de produits alimentaires (zones rurales) Fournisseurs ’articles manufacturé ’objets ’artisanat Fournisseurs de biens services (produits alimentaires, articles textiles, bois, services environnementaux, TIC, .) Fournisseurs de mobilier de matériels (efficacité environnementale ésidentielle, matériels ’information de communication) Entreposage distribution Fournisseurs de produits alimentaires de boissons Fournisseurs de livres, de CD, ’objets artisanaux, . Signalétique sur les sites ’intéê Restauration Gestion Entretien Sources Internet Agents de voyages Centres ’appel - pagnies ériennes Équipements services de bien-être Biens services pour les guides Production de brochures Entreprises commerciales Grossistes fournisseurs uniques Lieux de vente importations de produits technologiques Usines Stations- service Transports ébergement Produits alimentaires boissons Industries de la création Patrimoine touristique du lieu de destination Loisirs, visites excursions Services ’appui Activité de promotion, TIC, produits services de banque ’assurance Biens services lié à la promotion Moyens de communication, presse édias Au épart en transit vers ou depuis la/les destination() finale() Voyagistes grossistes en voyage éservation organisation de voyages Du lieu de épart au lieu de destination Politiques planification Industries du tourisme Fourniture de biens services Phases de la chaîne de valeur Approvisionnements, services ’utilité publique (partenariats public-privé) Industries du tourisme vendeurs ambulants de produits alimentaires Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 PAYS 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Recettes du tourisme international (en pourcentage des exportations totales) Indonésie 9,9 7 5,4 4,6 5,8 Afrique du Sud 7,7 9 12,7 9,6 9,6 Thaïlande 13,2 12,2 9,4 10,5 14,9 Tunisie 23 23,1 19,2 15,7 14,1 Produit intérieur brut par habitant dollars constants de 2011) Indonésie 6 022,6 5 805,8 6 838,4 8 465,3 10 031,3 Afrique du Sud 9 718,8 9 915,7 11 138,9 12 078,1 12 454,3 Thaïlande 9 417,1 9 228,2 11 449,1 13 584,2 14 976,0 Tunisie 6 238,4 7 690,2 8 867,4 10 528,2 10 913,1 Exportations de biens services (en pourcentage du produit intérieur brut) Indonésie 26,3 41 34,1 24,3 23,6 Afrique du Sud 22,1 27,2 26,5 28,6 31,2 Thaïlande 41,5 64,8 68,4 66,2 69,3 Tunisie 44,9 39,6 44,9 50,5 45,6 Calculs de la CNUCED, ’aprè World Bank, 2017. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive • • la proportion de biens intermédiaires acheté à ’étranger est égale au ratio . . Nonobstant la forte expansion du dans ces deux pays. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 pays considéé. note toutefois une grande épendance à ’égard des sources les fuites sont ’autant faibles. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive (En millions de dollars) Afrique du Sud Tunisie Indonésie Thaïlande 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 Agriculture, chasse, êche sylviculture Construction ôtels restaurants Autres services (sauf ôtels restaurants) Activité extractives Activité de fabrication Distribution ’électricité, de gaz ’eau 5 000 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 20 000 18 000 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0 0 40 000 35 000 30 000 25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 5000 0 4 500 4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 possibilité de nouer des liens intersectoriels mais aussi dans le secteur agricole dans certains segments du secteur manufacturier. - constaté. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 250 500 750 1 000 1 250 1 500 1 750 2 000 2 250 2 500 Afrique du Sud ill io ns lla rs ou rc en ta ge 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 250 500 750 1 000 1 250 1 500 1 750 2 000 2 250 2 500 ill io ns lla rs ou rc en ta ge Tunisie gr ic ul tu , ch se , ê ch yl vi cu ltu ct iv é de er vi ce lle ct ifs , oc ia ux pe rs ne ls Im ob ili er , lo ca tio ns ac tiv é se rv ic es ux nt pr es Tr sp ts en tr ep os ag , os te é é om ic io ns om er ce gr os de é ai ; ct iv é de é ar io tr ib ut io ’ é ec tr ic é , de az ’ ea ct iv é de ab ric io pr es ill eu rs ac ne é om pr ill eu rs ac ne pp ar ei ls é ec tr iq ue , é qu ip em en ts ap pa ils ’ pt iq ue ro du é al lu rg iq ue de ba se , ou vr ag es é au ro du iq ue ro du é au é al liq ue oi , ap , rt ic le en ap , é iti im pr im er ro du lim en ta ire , oi ss pr od ui ts à de ab ac ct iv é tr ac tiv es é ls tr sp te rm é ia tio fin ci è ô el es ta ur ts st ru ct io Te xt ile , ro du til es , ar tic le en ui ha su gr ic ul tu , ch se , ê ch yl vi cu ltu ct iv é de er vi ce lle ct ifs , oc ia ux pe rs ne ls Im ob ili er , lo ca tio ns ac tiv é se rv ic es ux nt pr es Tr sp ts en tr ep os ag , os te é é om ic io ns om er ce gr os de é ai ; ct iv é de é ar io tr ib ut io ’ é ec tr ic é , de az ’ ea ct iv é de ab ric io pr es ill eu rs ac ne é om pr ill eu rs ac ne pp ar ei ls é ec tr iq ue , é qu ip em en ts ap pa ils ’ pt iq ue ro du é al lu rg iq ue de ba se , ou vr ag es é au ro du iq ue ro du é au é al liq ue oi , ap , rt ic le en ap , é iti im pr im er ro du lim en ta ire , oi ss pr od ui ts à de ab ac ct iv é tr ac tiv es é ls tr sp te rm é ia tio fin ci è ô el es ta ur ts st ru ct io Te xt ile , ro du til es , ar tic le en ui ha su Valeur ajouté étrangè Valeur ajouté intérieure Composante nationale (en pourcentage) Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 gr ic ul tu , ch se , ê ch yl vi cu ltu ct iv é de er vi ce lle ct ifs , oc ia ux pe rs ne ls Im ob ili er , lo ca tio ns ac tiv é se rv ic es ux nt pr es Tr sp ts en tr ep os ag , os te é é om ic io ns om er ce gr os de é ai ; ct iv é de é ar io tr ib ut io ’ é ec tr ic é , de az ’ ea ct iv é de ab ric io pr es ill eu rs ac ne é om pr ill eu rs ac ne pp ar ei ls é ec tr iq ue , é qu ip em en ts ap pa ils ’ pt iq ue ro du é al lu rg iq ue de ba se , ou vr ag es é au ro du iq ue ro du é au é al liq ue oi , ap , rt ic le en ap , é iti im pr im er ro du lim en ta ire , oi ss pr od ui ts à de ab ac ct iv é tr ac tiv es é ls tr sp te rm é ia tio fin ci è ô el es ta ur ts st ru ct io Te xt ile , ro du til es , ar tic le en ui ha su gr ic ul tu , ch se , ê ch yl vi cu ltu ct iv é de er vi ce lle ct ifs , oc ia ux pe rs ne ls Im ob ili er , lo ca tio ns ac tiv é se rv ic es ux nt pr es Tr sp ts en tr ep os ag , os te é é om ic io ns om er ce gr os de é ai ; ct iv é de é ar io tr ib ut io ’ é ec tr ic é , de az ’ ea ct iv é de ab ric io pr es ill eu rs ac ne é om pr ill eu rs ac ne pp ar ei ls é ec tr iq ue , é qu ip em en ts ap pa ils ’ pt iq ue ro du é al lu rg iq ue de ba se , ou vr ag es é au ro du iq ue ro du é au é al liq ue oi , ap , rt ic le en ap , é iti im pr im er ro du lim en ta ire , oi ss pr od ui ts à de ab ac ct iv é tr ac tiv es é ls tr sp te rm é ia tio fin ci è ô el es ta ur ts st ru ct io Te xt ile , ro du til es , ar tic le en ui ha su Thaïlande Indonésie ill io ns lla rs ill io ns lla rs 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ou rc en ta ge 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ou rc en ta ge 20 000 18 000 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000 8 000 9 000 10 000 Valeur ajouté étrangè Valeur ajouté intérieure Composante nationale (en pourcentage) Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive 1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1995 1995 2011 2011 20112011 2011 1995 1995 1995 2011 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Afrique du Sud Tunisie Po id du ec te ur ’ ri gi ne la em de fi na le du ec te ur ’ ô el le ri la es ta ur io Poids des composantes nationales de la valeur ajouté dans le secteur ’origine Poids des composantes nationales de la valeur ajouté dans le secteur ’origine Po id du ec te ur ’ ri gi ne la em de fi na le du ec te ur ’ ô el le ri la es ta ur io Agriculture, chasse, êche sylviculture Produits alimentaires, boissons, produits à base de tabac Produits chimiques produits minéraux étalliques Commerce de gros de étail; activité de éparation Transport entreposage, postes éécommunications Services ’intermédiation financiè 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1995 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Agriculture êche Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive les populations rurales par une élioration des moyens ’existence une éduction également facteur tourisme la êche artisanale à petite échelle est créateur ’emplois de ébouché Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 « à ’aide de cadres directifs pour tirer parti des complémentarité entre les deux secteurs. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive de écurité sanitaire les autres normes applicables aux produits en les aidant à être prohibitif pour ces producteurs les dissuader de fournir des produits au secteur à prendre en compte est la disponibilité du matériel écessaire à la manutention à Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Infrastructures les accessibles Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive les entreprises. La présence ’infrastructures ’appui étant facteur écisif de la duré de éjour routiers. emplois dans le domaine de la construction de salles de conférence de éunion. Au Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ÉGYPTE KENYA MAROC AFRIQUE DU SUD AFRIQUE SUBSAHARIENNE (HORS SEYCHELLES) MONDE Nombre ’utilisateurs ’Internet pour 100 habitants 36,0 46,0 57,0 52,0 22,4 44,0 à haut ébit pour 100 habitants 4,5 0,3 3,4 5,3 0,54 11,3 û mensuel ’Internet (2013, en dollars) 7,0 35,0 12,0 17,0 41,0 21,0 Nombre de guichets automatiques 13,8 10,2 26,1 69,3 6,14 40,5 Nombre de serveurs Internet écurisé pour 1 million ’habitants 5,4 9,1 6,2 130,0 9,8 208,7 World Bank, 2017. millions de passagers Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive RANG NOMBRE DE ÉUNIONS Afrique du Sud 1 108 Maroc 2 36 Égypte 3 22 Kenya 4 19 Tunisie 5 17 épublique-Unie de Tanzanie 6 16 Ghana 7 13 Rwanda 7 13 Éthiopie 8 12 Nigéria 9 9 International Congress Convention Association, 2015. mixtes) ou ’autres entité étrangères (organisations publiques ou gouvernementales) ériodiquement par roulement dans au moins trois pays. elles garantissent ’existence de personnel bien formé capable de satisfaire à la demande Écotourisme colossaux. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ’ébergement créent pour les entreprises locales une demande de produits de millions de dollars fait par ont pour objectif de renforcer encore les capacité du pays dans le domaine du transport érien. Les éliorations apportées aux infrastructures de transport ’appui ont éé ’une millions de dollars. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive millions de dollars million de dollars namibiens emplois à personnes Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 écision des touristes de prolonger la duré de leur éjour donc dans la possibilité Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Tourisme culturel secteur du tourisme. Les obstacles à ’entré étant faibles ’artisanat peu gourmand ’artisanat local de créer des ébouché commerciaux pour les artisans locaux. ébouché pour les fabricants locaux ’objets artisanaux. Les relations en amont informel. les moyens de subsistance des communauté concernées. Les établissements Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive dollars en marché fondé sur une offre de produits culturels de produits de loisirs. Les de galeries ’art. Les manifestations culturelles contribuent à ’économie locale talents du continent des membres de la diaspora. sites inscrits au patrimoine mondial de ’Organisation Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 indirectement du fait - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive rentables. Les partenariats étant faibles les écanismes destiné à faciliter les Tourisme édical Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 le continent africain. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive de ce segment du marché à ’économie beaucoup progressé. Le montant des exportations milliards de dollars. des é Nord-Sud. postes ’auxiliaires hospitaliers. la création ’emplois directs dans le domaine de la thalassothérapie la création ’emplois indirects. Le tourisme édical en Tunisie Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive patients par . normes internationales par les établissements. Les pays se mobilisent de en établissements de santé aligné sur les normes internationales ’élioration de la tous garantiront aux communauté locales une part des recettes encaissées. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 soient en place pour aider les agriculteurs les êcheurs à se conformer aux normes fournisseurs étrangers. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive CHAPITRE 3 Tourisme croissance inclusive pourrait favoriser la croissance inclusive par les ébouché 30.5% de femmes 20.8% de femmes Employeuses en Afrique Secteur du tourisme Tous secteurs confondus 60–70% de la main-’œuvre dans le secteur mondial du tourisme sont des femmes 50% des travailleurs dans le secteur mondial du tourisme ont 25 ans ou moins ==+ de tourisme - ’emplois vulnérables Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive personnes handicapées. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 . Si les fuites - - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 de ne pas être des emplois écents employé dans une entreprise familiale. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive compétences de connaissances. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 0 5 10 15 20 25 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Taux de chômage des jeunes femmes Taux de chômage des jeunes hommes Taux de chômage des hommesTaux de chômage des femmes Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive entre la formation ’enseignement dispensé aux jeunes les compétences les 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 20141991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Afrique du Nord Afrique de ’Est Afrique centrale Afrique australe Afrique de ’Ouest Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ’ des facteurs clefs de ’intégration de la progression des jeunes dans ’emploi Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive informel le secteur du tourisme. dans le secteur du tourisme. analyse aussi les effets différencié du tourisme sur secteur. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 analysé ’importance de la place des femmes dans le tourisme dans plusieurs de ses libéralisation du commerce sur les hommes sur les femmes dans différents secteurs. pays pas écessairement aux hommes aux femmes les êmes ébouché les êmes Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 (En pourcentage) % des cadres érieurs nationale ’intégration de la parité dans le tourisme fondé sur la prise en compte de une augmentation du nombre de femmes à des postes de direction dans trois grands 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Travailleurs indépendants Travailleurs familiaux HommesFemmes Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive rendre les postes de direction accessibles à grand nombre de femmes est ’écart de salaires entre hommes femmes dans le secteur du tourisme est % de ig er ui é Tc ha ad ag ca om al ur di é é al pu bl iq ue é oc ra tiq ue er ou É yp te ou da al rr Le ur ki na ô ’ Iv oi al aw Zi ba bw é ub liq ue - ni de za ni au rit Tu ni si É op ng ol ab Za bi da ig é ia ha na ot sw fr iq ue ud au ric HommesFemmes 20 40 60 80 100 0 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 La lutte contre les écarts salariaux entre hommes femmes permettrait à cellesci La capacité de créer une entreprise lié au tourisme de la faire prospérer épend % des employé écrire sont elles aussi exclues des formations professionnelles en particulier des Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive de femmes dans le secteur. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive propriétaires créateurs contribuera à protéger la culture locale à stopper son érosion. la relation étroite entre la promotion de la participation des femmes au tourisme le occupé par les femmes. Le principal objectif de la présente section était ’explorer par Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 écents en grand nombre. supplémentaires. CHAPITRE 4 Accroître le tourisme porte sur les questions de la libre circulation des personnes, de la la connectivité érienne. 2/10 proportion de touristes internationaux africains En Afrique du Nord 2/3 proportion de touristes internationaux africains En Afrique subsaharienne ’intégration égionale favorise le tourisme intrarégional par la rationalisation des formalité de visa par ’ouverture de ’espace érien par la convertibilité des monnaies par la politique touristique 4/10 proportion en Afrique de touristes internationaux africains VISA Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Une bonne part de ’industrie africaine du tourisme toujours ciblé les touristes permis permettent toujours de soutenir grandement la balance des paiements de bon sont donc essentiellement pensé pour les touristes internationaux africains. millions Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 tourisme. cessé ’augmenter. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2010 2011 2012 2013 Arrivées de touristes internationaux (monde) Arrivées de touristes internationaux provenant du continent Figure 17 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive dollars des États-Unis dollars des États- effectuées par les touristes continentaux les touristes intrarégionaux contribuent pour . . - - - - Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 (En milliards de dollars) Source . - - 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 En ill ia de ol la rs Recettes du tourisme international épenses du tourisme interne Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive égionale peut stimuler le tourisme intrarégional au moyen de protocoles ’accords Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 effets de la saisonnalité de renforcer la stabilité du marché de ’emploi. compilées pour le pré rapport. La compilation de telles données est édite. La base pays africains. - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive australe. ées de touristes intrarégionaux (En pourcentage) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 2010 2011 2012 2013 Union du Maghreb arabe Marché commun des États de ’Afrique de ’Est de ’Afrique australe Communauté ’Afrique de ’Est Communauté de éveloppement de ’Afrique australe Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 (En pourcentage) Source Union du Maghreb arabe Marché commun des États de ’Afrique de ’Est de ’Afrique australe Communauté ’Afrique de ’Est Communauté de éveloppement de ’Afrique australe 0 20 40 60 80 100 2010 2011 2012 2013 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive si les raisons sont personnelles Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ’affaires. La mondialisation ’élioration de ’intégration égionale ont permis de touristes ’affaires formels les entrepreneurs migrants. du tourisme ’affaires exclut large ’affaires du secteur informel ’entendraient essentiellement des entrepreneurs migrants - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Source UNWTO, 2017. Note Diagrammes ) à ) les diagrammes ) ), les affaires prennent en compte les services professionnels. 18 38 31 32 32 76 15 9 44 77 15 8 ) Arrivées de touristes internationaux en Afrique ) Visiteurs africains étrangers arrivé en Afrique du Sud par voie érienne ) Arrivées de visiteurs africains au Botswana ) éparts de visiteurs internationaux africains du Kenya ) Tourisme interne en Égypte en Afrique du Sud ) Visiteurs africains étrangers arrivé en Afrique du Sud par voie terrestre 14 23 63 Vacances Transit Affaires Loisirs Autres motifs personnels (par exemple, édical ou religieux)Affaires Loisirs Autres motifs personnels (par exemple, édical ou religieux)Affaires Vacances Autres motifs personnels (par exemple, visite de parents ’amis, retour de ésident) Affaires Transit Vacances, loisirs étente Autres motifs personnels Affaires Vacances Autres motifs personnels Affaires 4 17 79 5 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 les recenser dans la catégorie des -touristes. dans la structure des épenses dans la demande des touristes africains. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive (En pourcentage) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 2012 2013 Part des arrivées de touristes intrarégionaux dans le total des arrivées de touristes internationaux en Afrique Part des arrivées de touristes intrarégionaux dans les arrivées de touristes continentaux Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 de ésidence ’établissement à leurs ressortissants . Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive la pertinence de ’objectif de la . La contribution du tourisme à la éalisation de ’intégration égionale est également souligné à ’article tourisme intra-africain. de liberté Liberté de circulation des personnes tourisme intrarégional Formalité ’entré de visa ressortissants de ce continent. - Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 % entre . - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive PAYS INDICE ’OUVERTURE SUR LES VISAS (2015) NOMBRE ’ARRIVÉES DE TOURISTES INTERNATIONAUX EN PROVENANCE ’UN PAYS ’AFRIQUE (2013) NOMBRE ’ARRIVÉES DE TOURISTES INTERNATIONAUX EN PROVENANCE ’UN PAYS ’AFRIQUE (2010) ÉVOLUTION EN POURCENTAGE DU NOMBRE ’ARRIVÉES (2013/2010) PART DU TOURISME EN POURCENTAGE DU PIB (MOYENNE 2011-2015) Égypte 0,000 705 966 942 484 -25 12,3 Angola 0,033 224 345 76 668 193 4,1 Soudan 0,048 108 167 49 516 118 Éthiopie 0,052 221 619 143 747 54 10,3 épublique émocratique du Congo 0,1 72 701 20 301 258 1,7 Algérie 0,111 622 134 329 997 89 6,5 Maroc 0,167 437 086 292 621 49 18,2 Tchad 0,204 67 568 34 218 97 3,8 Namibie 0,222 912 861 714 287 28 14,8 Congo 0,226 261 759 4,3 Tunisie 0,237 3 289 726 3 028 890 9 14,6 Afrique du Sud 0,259 6 856 050 5 740 829 19 9,2 Lesotho 0,278 408 371 400 823 2 13,2 Sierra Leone 0,278 21 789 10 845 101 5,3 énin 0,296 135 327 138 985 -3 6,1 Botswana 0,315 1 182 191 1 787 369 -34 11,3 Swaziland 0,315 1 169 763 1 218 054 -4 4,4 Zimbabwe 0,319 1 570 799 1 951 981 -20 10,9 Niger 0,333 69 514 47 702 46 3,3 Nigéria 0,348 1 293 082 4 231 789 -69 4 ôte ’Ivoire 0,389 258 400 173 900 49 4,9 Zambie 0,419 720 465 583 357 24 6,4 Burkina Faso 0,456 107 708 128 237 -16 3,6 Gambie 0,496 22 808 2 274 903 20,5 Tableau 11 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Tableau 11 (suite) PAYS INDICE ’OUVERTURE SUR LES VISAS (2015) NOMBRE ’ARRIVÉES DE TOURISTES INTERNATIONAUX EN PROVENANCE ’UN PAYS ’AFRIQUE (2013) NOMBRE ’ARRIVÉES DE TOURISTES INTERNATIONAUX EN PROVENANCE ’UN PAYS ’AFRIQUE (2010) ÉVOLUTION EN POURCENTAGE DU NOMBRE ’ARRIVÉES (2013/2010) PART DU TOURISME EN POURCENTAGE DU PIB (MOYENNE 2011-2015) épublique- Unie de Tanzanie 0,641 524 143 393 543 33 11,2 Guiné 0,7 20 405 4,5 Kenya 0,778 286 202 278 812 3 10,7 Madagascar 0,8 34 874 18 518 88 12,5 Maurice 0,822 134 659 141 295 -5 26,5 Rwanda 0,822 993 968 548 074 81 8,6 Mozambique 0,83 1 580 523 1 465 793 8 7,2 Togo 0,856 149 499 110 821 35 8,8 Cabo Verde 0,859 1 321 218 506 43,4 Ouganda 0,863 935 983 677 774 38 8,6 Mali 0,874 53 102 9,4 Seychelles 1 24 451 17 870 37 61,6 Council, 2017. Échantillon de 36 pays africains pour lesquels des données étaient disponibles. ’indice ’ouverture sur les visas est issu du à partir de trois catégories pondéées : aucun visa requis, visa à ’arrivé visa obligatoire. indice élevé émoigne ’une grande ouverture. Les chiffres des éplacements intra-africains de touristes internationaux ont éé calculé à partir des données du tourisme en pourcentage du PIB sont issus des données du World Travel Tourism Council. % par sur une ériode Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive ’assurent de la éciprocité des procédures entre les pays Droit au travail droit ’établissement . Protocoles des communauté économiques égionales sur la liberté de circulation des personnes Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 COMMUNAUTÉ ÉCONOMIQUE ÉGIONALE TAUX DE RATIFICATION FORMALITÉ ACTUELLES ’ENTRÉ ET DE VISA POUR LES RESSORTISSANTS DES ÉTATS MEMBRES DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ ÉVOLUTION CONCERNANT LE DROIT DE ÉSIDENCE ET LE DROIT ’ÉTABLISSEMENT POUR LES RESSORTISSANTS DES ÉTATS MEMBRES DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ PASSEPORT COMMUN VISA TOURISTIQUE ÉGIONAL UMA Trois des cinq États le protocole sur la liberté de circulation des personnes Les ressortissants ’ont pas besoin ’ visa pour entrer dans 20 % des cas, visa est élivré à ’arrivé protocole, mais elle est le seul État membre de ’UMA qui garantit la liberté ’établissement les Mauritaniens, les ressortissants étrangers les personnes morales soient traité dans des conditions ’égalité Projet ’accord sur la liberté de circulation le droit ’établissement des personnes sur le territoire des États membres de la Communauté des États sahélo- protocole sur la liberté de circulation inspiré des textes de la CEDEAO est en cours de édaction Les ressortissants ’ont pas besoin ’ visa pour entrer dans 22 % des cas, visa est élivré à ’arrivé. Les titulaires ’ passeport diplomatique ’extension de ce privilège aux étudiants, aux hommes femmes ’affaires, aux athlètes aux universitaires est à ’étude COMESA Deux des 20 États le Protocole sur la libre circulation des personnes, la main-’œuvre, les services, le droit ’établissement 17 des 20 États le Protocole sur ’assouplissement progressif la suppression à terme des visas Les ressortissants ’ont pas besoin ’ visa pour entrer dans 30 % des cas, visa est élivré à ’arrivé Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive COMMUNAUTÉ ÉCONOMIQUE ÉGIONALE TAUX DE RATIFICATION FORMALITÉ ACTUELLES ’ENTRÉ ET DE VISA POUR LES RESSORTISSANTS DES ÉTATS MEMBRES DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ ÉVOLUTION CONCERNANT LE DROIT DE ÉSIDENCE ET LE DROIT ’ÉTABLISSEMENT POUR LES RESSORTISSANTS DES ÉTATS MEMBRES DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ PASSEPORT COMMUN VISA TOURISTIQUE ÉGIONAL CAE Les cinq États membres de la Communauté ont portant création du marché commun de la Communauté ’Afrique de ’Est Les ressortissants ’ont pas besoin ’ visa pour entrer dans 20 % des cas, visa est pour accéérer les procédures ’immigration Pour certaines catégories de professions, notamment celles dans lesquelles les compétences sont variables, les travailleurs ’ État membre sont autorisé à travailler dans ’importe travailleurs ont droit aux prestations de écurité sociale ’être accompagné cadre de reconnaissance mutuelle est en cours ’élaboration dans le ’harmoniser les politiques ’emploi les égislations du travail Oui Le visa touristique de ’Afrique de ’Est (Kenya, Ouganda, Rwanda) CEEAC Quatre des 11 États le protocole sur la liberté de circulation des personnes Les ressortissants ’ont pas besoin ’ visa pour entrer dans 9 % des cas, visa est ’une voie éparé pour le passage à la frontiè le protocole appliquent également le droit ’établissement Cartes ou livrets de voyage En cours CEDEAO ’ensemble des 15 États membres ont sur la liberté de circulation des personnes Les citoyens de la CEDEAO sont dispensé de visa ’harmonisation des diplômes, mais ’égalité de traitement entre les ressortissants nationaux les travailleurs migrants ’est toujours pas atteinte dans des domaines tels la écurité ’emploi, les licenciements, le éemploi la formation de voyage En cours (Eco-visa) IGAD Il ’existe pas de protocole sur la liberté de circulation des personnes Les ressortissants ’ont pas besoin ’ visa pour entrer dans 50 % des cas, visa est élivré à ’arrivé SADC Sept des 15 États le Protocole sur la facilitation de la circulation des personnes (pas encore entré en vigueur) Les ressortissants ’ont pas besoin ’ visa pour entrer dans 15 % des cas, visa dispositions existent pour les États membres puissent conclure des accords bilatéraux ’exemption de visa Conformément au Protocole de la Communauté sur ’emploi la main-’œuvre, les États membres sont encouragé à veiller à ce les droits fondamentaux (main-’œuvre, emploi protection sociale) des travailleurs migrants de leur famille soient respecté Visa unique KAZA Univisa (Zambie, Zimbabwe, visite des parcs du Botswana) Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 africains ’ici à autre facteur tient aux différences entre les prestations de écurité sociale ou à Les dispositions des protocoles sur la liberté de circulation des personnes ne Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive ’immigration constitue une préoccupation importante pour les pays ayant taux de pesé lourdement sur la propension des pays à accorder des droits supplémentaires aux Liberté de circulation des personnes au niveau panafricain à Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 personnes reprend au besoin des dispositions issues des protocoles conclus par • • • • • • • globale est indispensable pour instaurer cadre des conditions propices au accordent une moindre importance au tourisme. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 COMMUNAUTÉ ÉCONOMIQUE ÉGIONALE IMPORTANCE DU TOURISME DANS LES STRATÉGIES OU PLANS DE ÉVELOPPEMENT STRATÉGIES OU PLANS CONSACRÉ AU TOURISME UMA Aucun plan de éveloppement Le traité ne mentionne pas le tourisme Aucun plan de éveloppement COMESA Le tourisme est une priorité programmatique du plan stratégique à moyen terme 2011-2015 En cours Le traité considè le tourisme comme secteur prioritaire prévoit une coopération en matiè de éveloppement du tourisme CAE La quatriè stratégie de éveloppement de la Communauté ’Afrique de , mais le tourisme la vie sauvage constituent une prioritéLe traité considè la coopération touristique la gestion de la vie sauvage comme une priorité CEEAC Aucun plan de éveloppement Protocole sur la coopération touristique entre États membres de la CEEACLe traité mentionne le tourisme comme domaine de coopération CEDEAO Le traité évisé comporte chapitre sur la coopération touristique IGAD considè ’élaboration, ’adoption ’écution du Plan directeur pour le tourisme durable (2013-2023) comme succè Plan directeur pour le tourisme durable de la égion de ’IGAD (2013-2023) SADC Le Plan égional indicatif de éveloppement stratégique (2005-2020) Protocole sur le éveloppement du tourisme dans la SADC (1998), la Stratégie quinquennale de éveloppement du tourisme (1995-1999) Le traité ne mentionne pas expressément le tourisme, mais cite les services le commerce comme des domaines de coopération Compilation de la CNUCED, ’aprè diverses sources, en particulier les bases de données des communauté économiques égionales de la Commission économique pour ’Afrique. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Les égociations des communauté économiques égionales sur la libéralisation du commerce des services touristiques autre éément important à prendre en considération au sujet de la facilitation du protocoles relatifs au commerce des marchandises sous la forme ’une élimination Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ces communauté ont pris dans les accords commerciaux internationaux. portant sur les autres protocoles sectoriels. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive donnant Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ’échanger une monnaie contre une autre représente pour les touristes des frais de La présente section examine donc les incidences des restrictions monétaires sur écision. Restrictions monétaires des taux une sortie des capitaux en ’absence de restriction. interdire les opérations de change ou à les circonscrire aux agents de change autorisé Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive de change multiples ’en rendre compte . Nombre de mesures différentes sont taux de change multiples ou les écarts notables par rapport aux taux du marché. Observation de la relation entre les recettes touristiques les restrictions monétaires la croissance des épenses de tourisme écepteur. - tions de change. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 RESTRICTIONS PENDANT LA TOTALITÉ DES ONZE ANNÉES RESTRICTIONS PENDANT UN À SIX ANS RESTRICTIONS PENDANT SEPT À DIX ANS AUCUNE RESTRICTION Angola Égypte Gabon Afrique du Sud, Algérie, énin, épublique centrafricaine, Tchad, Comores, ôte ’Ivoire, Djibouti, Guiné équatoriale, Gambie, Guiné-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Libéria, Lybie, Madagascar, Mali, Maurice, Maroc, Namibie, Niger, épublique-Unie de éégal, Togo, épublique émocratique du Congo Botswana Érythré Mauritanie Malawi Éthiopie Seychelles Soudan Guiné Ghana Swaziland Somalie Mozambique Nigéria Soudan du Sud Burundi Tunisie Zambie Zimbabwe International Monetary Fund, 2015. Les restrictions portent sur les é entre banques centrales ne concernent pas les particuliers. Elles peuvent comprendre des mesures visant à maintenir le taux de change en dessous du taux du marché ou à mettre en place des taux de change multiples. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Analyse des effets des restrictions monétaires sur le tourisme écepteur -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Total des épenses de tourisme écepteur (recettes ’exportation du tourisme) Recettes du tourisme international épenses de transport international de voyageurs Aucune restriction monétaire Restrictions monétaires pendant à ans Restrictions monétaires pendant sept à dix ans Restrictions monétaires pendant toutes les années Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 = + ß 1 + ß 2 + + correspond aux recettes du tourisme international pour ’anné dans le pays monétaires Xit font ’objet ’une égression par rapport à ’augmentation des épenses de ’anné -1 à ’anné . Les erreurs types ß 1 est ’effet des restrictions du tourisme écepteur. - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive de terrorisme est ajouté pour tenir compte de la paix de la stabilité. le taux de change sont les fortement corréé à la croissance des épenses de tourisme écepteur. ’appréciation du dollar par rapport à la monnaie locale stimule la ’adoption de restrictions monétaires éé corréé à une croissance des recettes du la relation de causalité. La présente analyse prend en compte les données disponibles sur les épenses de tourisme écepteur consacrées au transport international de la différence entre les recettes du tourisme international les épenses de tourisme tourisme international les épenses de tourisme écepteur consacrées au transport monétaires freinent la croissance des recettes du tourisme international. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Incidences des restrictions monétaires sur les recettes du tourisme international VARIABLES RECETTES DU TOURISME INTERNATIONAL (EN POURCENTAGE) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Restrictions monétaires (0/1) -2,08 -6,04 -10,22a -11,15a -10,16a (3,84) (4,10) (3,52) (3,39) (3,60) PIB éel par habitant (dollars, en parité de pouvoir ’achat) -0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 (0,00) (0,00) (0,00) (0,00) Croissance par habitant du PIB éel (en pourcentage) 1,77a 2,19a 2,22a 2,32a (0,43) (0,54) (0.52) (0.53) Taux de change (monnaie locale par rapport au dollar) -0,00a -0,00a -0,00a (0,00) (0,00) (0,00) Commerce (importations + exportations, en pourcentage du PIB) -0,05 -0,04 -0,03 (0,06) (0,06) (0,06) Erreurs omissions (en pourcentage du PIB) 0,08 0,10 0,11 (0,11) (0,12) (0,12) Stabilité politique absence de violence de terrorisme (indice) -1,70 -1,72 (1,99) (2,04) 3,66 (4,24) Constante -14,49b -16,38c -4,99 -7,62 -10,41 (5,92) (8,70) (8,12) (7,74) (8,97) Nombre ’observations 388 383 239 239 239 Nombre de pays 45 45 33 33 33 0,066 0,102 0,143 0,144 0,147 Probabilité inférieure à 0,01. Probabilité inférieure à 0,05. Probabilité inférieure à 0,1. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 ont éé la plupart du temps égis par des accords bilatéraux restrictifs. Le renforcement de la Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 concurrencer les meilleures compagnies ériennes les meilleurs éroports du monde. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive touristes intrarégionaux. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 car elle facilite ’entré dans le pays de destination permet à la population de rechercher ’intégration ’ pas encore abouti à la libéralisation des principales professions du permettre à tous les ressortissants africains ’entrer dans tous les pays africains sans Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive peut être corréé à une croissance des recettes du tourisme international inférieure de du potentiel croissant du tourisme africain. CHAPITRE 5 Afrique Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 en se donnant pour principe ’être à la hauteur de la situation de ne commettre concernant notamment les épenses militaires la guerre. part du principe . Les la Namibie. Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Afrique érique du Sud Asie Pacifique érique du Nord Europe 2009 2016 Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 Somalie Soudan du Sud Libye épublique émocratique du Congo Soudan épublique centrafricaine Nigéria Burundi Mali Éthiopie Égypte Kenya Algérie Cameroun Tchad Niger Érythré Tunisie Ouganda ôte ’Ivoire Libéria Afrique Mauritanie Burkina Faso Angola Zimbabwe Mozambique Congo Swaziland épublique-Unie de Tanzanie Djibouti Guiné Guiné-Bissau Madagascar Maroc Guiné équatoriale Afrique du Sud Togo éégal Lesotho Sierra Leone Rwanda Malawi énin Gambie Ghana Gabon Zambie Namibie Maurice Botswana 1.50 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive = ß + ß 1 + ß 2 3 + + lt+ qZt de terrorisme. Xit Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 est population urbaine en pourcentage de la population totale. ß est di lt représente les effets ß dans pays donné. ß - Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive est importante. . égression représentent donc une semi-élasticité. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 LA PAIX EN TANT QUE VARIABLE ÉPENDANTE INDICE DE LA PAIX DANS LE MONDE INDICE ET STABILITÉ POLITIQUE ET ’ABSENCE DE VIOLENCE ET DE TERRORISME T_Arr (arrivées touristiques internationales) -0,022 -0,005 -0,111*** -0,100*** (-1,61) (-0,47) (-3,86) (-3,77) -0,032*** -0,021*** 0,141*** 0,104*** (-5,53) (-3,93) (7,04) (5,46) -0,020*** -0,009 0,106*** 0,070*** (-3,29) (-1,60) (4,96) (3,47) 0,005 0,020*** -0,036 -0,054** (0,63) (2,72) (-1,23) (-2,00) -0,002 0,006 0,139*** 0,088*** (-0,46) (1,11) (6,27) (4,17) 0,023*** -0,126*** (6,23) (7,50) 0,038*** -0,217*** (4,95) (-5,26) Produit intérieur brut -0,096*** -0,084*** 0,321*** 0,36*** (-4,88) (-4,85) (5,44) (6,61) Investissement étranger direct 0,002 0,000 -0,033** -0,015 (-0,70) (0,05) (-2,42) (-1,23) Population urbaine 0,563*** 0,278** (4,58) (2,37) Constante 1,59 1,31 -4,42 -3,46 (13,30) (11,58) (13,00) (-10,42) R2 0,3099 0,4659 0,3696 0,4672 Nombre ’observations 186 186 413 413 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 dans le mondea Tableau 1 de ’encadré LE TOURISME EN TANT QUE VARIABLE ÉPENDANTE T_ARR (ARRIVÉES TOURISTIQUES INTERNATIONALES) T_REV (RECETTES ’EXPORTATION LIÉES AU TOURISME) Indice de la paix dans le monde - 1,86*** -12,8 (-4,08) (-0,91) Indice de stabilité politique ’absence de violence de terrorisme 0,17** 0,54*** -2,24 -3,23 Produit intérieur brut 0,56*** 0,001** 0,94* 0,001** -7,32 -4,42 -1,83 -2,13 Investissement étranger direct 0,02 0,004 0,06 0,001* -1 -12,29 -0,36 -1,93 Population urbaine -0,002 -0,002 (-0,78) (-0,51) Constante -117,2 -40,51 8,77 -203,76 (-1,38) (-1,00) -0,78 (-2,53) R2 0,444 0,3341 0,01 0,1022 Nombre ’observations 186 564 191 200 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 meilleurs comportements interculturels recul des tensions entre les groupes du Sud. La création de parcs de la paix constitue une autre stratégie axé sur le tourisme dont Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive mené dans le pré chapitre montre la relation de causalité bidirectionnelle entre Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 étrangers. les touristes substituent pays de destination à autre. CHAPITRE 6 recommandations pré chapitre écapitule les constatations, les du rapport. Carmen Nibigira, Coordonnatrice égionale East Africa Tourism Platform Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 tourisme est secteur libéralisé. Les recettes ’exportation du tourisme ont enregistré . Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive pas encore éé pleinement exploitées. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 du monde sous ’effet de ’expansion du tourisme. La paix étant moins présente sur le Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive rapport. Premièrement, les pays africains peuvent tirer parti du dynamisme du secteur touristique pour promouvoir leur transformation structurelle. La demande locaux capitaux étrangers. à acheter leurs billets leurs infrastructures liées au tourisme ont des effets importants sur ’emploi. La construction Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Deuxièmement, les pays peuvent éduire les fuites provenant du secteur Les pays africains ’ont pas encore pleinement exploité les liens Troisièmement, le tourisme peut contribuer à une croissance inclusive si cadre directif judicieux est en place. promotion ’emplois écents dans les secteurs formel informel. Le tourisme peut Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive femmes occupant des postes situé au bas de ’échelle. ’entreprenariat des femmes Quatrièmement, les dirigeants africains devraient privilégier le éveloppement du tourisme continental du tourisme intrarégional. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Cinquièmement, la collaboration égionale à la ésolution des crises joue ôle essentiel dans la croissance du tourisme dans la préservation de la paix. plan national relatif aux catastrophes au moyen ’institutions nationales égionales autre. Sixièmement, ’Afrique devrait continuer ’accroître ’investissement dans le tourisme si elle veut atteindre les objectifs de la Stratégie africaine pour le tourisme ’Agenda 2063. une stratégie africaine pour le tourisme de mettre en place une organisation africaine Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive disponibles sur le tourisme, éferences Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 preliminary assessment. North Africa Quarterly Analytical. July. Tracking Africa’ Progress Figures Psychological Bulletin International Journal Intercultural Relations Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive Feminist Economics. De-fragmenting Africa: Deepening Regional Trade Integration Goods Services. Le éveloppement économique en Afrique Rapport 2017 Journal African Economies Tourism Africa: Harnessing Tourism Growth Improved Livelihoods Bottom Billion: Poorest Countries Failing . Wars, Guns Votes: Democracy Dangerous Places. London. 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Printed United Nations, Geneva 1709293 ()–June 2017–1,595 UNCTAD/ALDC/AFRICA/2017 United Nations publication ISSN 1990-5092 Rapport 2017 sur le éveloppement économique en Afrique : Le tourisme au service ’une croissance transformatrice inclusive unctad.org/Africa/series “À ’occasion de ’Anné internationale du tourisme durable pour le éveloppement, ce rapport nous éclaire de maniè opportune ssur ’importance du secteur touristique en Afrique propose des oririentations claires sur la maniè de mieux exploiter le potentiel du tourismee de âtir avenir meilleur inclusif pour le continent ses habitannts.” Taleb Rifai, Secrétaire ééral de ’Organisation mondiale du tourismme “Ce rapport important consacré au tourisme, à une croissance incclusive à ’intégration égionale est une lecture essentielle pour les écideurs, les universitaires les professionnels du tourisme qui ’intéresseent à la création ’emplois à ’avenir du éveloppement économique eet social en Afrique. ” Christian . Rogerson, Professeur à la School Tourism Hosppitality de ’Université de Johannesburg (Afrique du Sud)